Logical Reasoning

because, since, for, for example, for the reason that, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by, furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, what’s more, after all

• when creating an argument, an author will sometimes bring up a counter premise—a premise that actually contains an idea that is counter to the argument, and would generally weaken it. By raising the counter premise and then addressing it, the author can address counter arguments or compare and contrast:

• but, yet, however, on the other hand, admittedly, in contrast, although, even though, still, whereas, in spite of, despite, after all

thus, therefore, hence, consequently, as a result, so, accordingly, clearly, must be that, shows that, conclude that, follows that, for this reason

• Therefore, since

• Thus, because

• Hence, due to

  • The comma separates the two of them, i.e: (premise, conclusion)

Therefore, because higher debt has forced consumers to lower their savings, banks now have less money to loan”

1. Identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the stimulus.

   1. Examples: “If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?” / “which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?”

2. Generally connected to stimuli that do NOT contain a conclusion

3. Uniqueness Rule of Answer Choices Application:

   1. Logical quality of correct answer: must be true

   2. Logical quality of incorrect answer: the opposite of must be true = not necessarily OR never true

1. Variant of Must Be True questions. Asks you to find the primary conclusion made by the author.

   1. Examples: “The main point of the argument is that:”

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

1. Point at Issue requires you to identify a point of contention between two speakers, and thus these questions appear almost exclusively with the two-speaker stimuli.

   1. Example: “Jones and Smith disagree about whether”

2. Point of Agreement is the same but with something that they agree on: “Jones and Smith’s statements provide the most support for the claim that they agree about which one of the following?”

3. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

1. Identity an assumption of the author’s argument

   1. Example:  “which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?”

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

1. Supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion.

   1. Example: “which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion to be properly drawn”

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

1. Select the answer choice that provides support for the author’s argument or strengthens it in some way.

   1. Example: Which of the following, if true, most strengthens / most strongly supports the argument / the statement above?”

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

3. Uniqueness Rule of Answer Choices Application:

   1. Logical quality of correct answer: strengthen

   2. Logical quality of incorrect answer: the opposite of strengthen = weaken OR neutral

1. Every resolve the paradox stimulus contains a discrepancy or seeming contradiction. You must find the answer choice that best resolves the situation.

   1. Example: “which of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?”

2. Generally connected to stimuli that do NOT contain a conclusion

1. Attack or undermine the author’s argument

   1. Example: which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

3. Uniqueness Rule of Answer Choices Application:

   1. Logical quality of correct answer: weaken

   2. Logical quality of incorrect answer: the opposite of weaken = strengthen OR Neutral

1. Describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument.

   1. Example: which of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

3. Strong “Must Be True” element

1. Asks you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author.

   1. Example: the reasoning in the mayor’s argument because this argument…”

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

1. Asks you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus.

   1. Example: “which of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

3. Strong “Must Be True” element

1. You must decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity of the argument.

   1. Example: “the answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument”

2. MUST be connect to stimuli with conclusions (unless a conclusion is added by the question stem, which sometimes occurs)

1. Identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus.

   1. Example: if the statements above are true, which of the following cannot be true?

2. Generally connected to stimuli that do NOT contain a conclusion

1. You must accept the stimulus information—even if it contains an error of reasoning—and use it to prove that one of the answer choices must be true.

2. Any information that does not appear either directly in the stimulus, as a combination of items in the stimulus, or under the umbrella of a concept in the stimulus will be incorrect.

Must Be True/Most Strongly Supported, Main Point, Point at Issue/Point of Agreement, Method of Reasoning, Flaw in the Reasoning, Parallel Reasoning/Parallel Flaw

1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning errors present, and depending on the question, you will help shore up the argument in some way.

2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include “new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice best meets the question posed in the stem.

Assumption (Necessary Assumption), Justify the Conclusion (Sufficient Assumption), Strengthen/Support, Resolve the Paradox

1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning errors present, and you will further weaken the argument in some way.

2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include “new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice best attacks the argument in the stimulus.

Weaken

1. You must accept the stimulus information—even if it contains an error of reasoning—and use it to prove that one of the answer choices cannot occur.

2. If an answer choice contains information that does not appear directly in the stimulus or as the result of a combination of items in the stimulus, then that answer choice could be true and it is therefore incorrect for this question.  The correct answer will directly disagree with the stimulus or a consequence of the stimulus.

Cannot Be True

• Question Type: Resolve the Paradox

• Explanation: the phrase “which one of the following, if true,” indicates that this question stem must be from either the second or third question family because the stimulus is in question. Because the third family is Weaken and this question stem asks you to “explain,” the question cannot be from the third family, so it must be from the second family, which includes Assumption, Justify, Strengthen, or Resolve. The idea of explaining is more closely aligned with Resolving the Paradox

• Question Type: Justify

• The presence of the words “if” and “properly drawn” along with “assumed” normally indicate a Justify question.

Question Type: although the question stem has the word ‘challenges,’ it is not a weaken question because the Stem asks for a description of the way the student’s reasoning was challenged.

• Many students, upon encountering “except” in a question stem, make the mistake of assuming that the “except” charges you with seeking the polar opposite. For example, there is a misconception that a “Weaken EXCEPT” question stem actually acts to strengthen the argument. This is incorrect. While the answer to a weaken EXCEPT could be a strengthening answer choice, it could also be an answer choice that has no effect on the argument.

• “Least” and “except” do not generally have the same meaning, on the LSAT in question stems (not answer choices) they mean the exact same thing!

  • This is because the test will avoid the controversy of having all five answer choices resolve the paradox, it just uses the word ‘least’ to introduce uncertainty into the correctness of all the answers.

  • Anytime you encounter a “least” question, recognize that four of the answers will meet the stated criteria and one will not.

“Every correct answer has a unique logical quality that meets the criteria in the question stem. Every incorrect answer has the opposite local quality.” (In the LSAT, we mean logical opposites, not polar opposites. For example, the logical opposite of ‘wet’ is ‘not wet’ where the polar opposite of ‘wet’ is ‘dry.’)

1. Determine whether the stimulus contains an argument or if it is only a set of factual statements

2. If the stimulus contains an argument, identify the conclusion of the argument. If the stimulus contains a fact set, examine each fact.

3. If the stimulus contains an argument, determine if the argument is strong or weak.

4. Read closely and know precisely what the author said. Do not generalize!

5. Carefully read and identify the question stem. Do not assume that certain words are automatically associated with certain question types.

6. Paraphrase: after reading the question stem, take a moment to mentally formulate your answer to the question stem.

7. Always read each of the five answer choices.

8. Separate the answer choices into Contenders and Losers. After you complete the process, review the Contenders and decide which answer is the correct one.

9. If all five answer choices appear to be Losers, return to the stimulus and re-evaluate the argument.