Biological Processes Chapter 3

ALL biological molecules are hydrocarbons, but not all hydrocarbons are biological molecules

Carbon and Hydrogen

they’re similar in electronegativity (they share electrons equally)

They’re NON polar molecules, so they form non polar covalent bonds

NOT water soluble and cannot interact with water

they are GASSES

The have to be POLAR because otherwise they wouldn’t interact with water

They have a hydrocarbon backbone but they MUST have other molecules on the backbone so they are polar and can interact with water

Functional groups are the other molecules located on biological molecules’ backbones. They convey polarity to the hydrocarbon backbone.

Hydroxyl

Carbonyl

Carboxyl

Amine

Phosphates

Sulphydryls

Methyl

OL ending

all ALCOHOLS have a hydroxyl

VERY POLAR

have a double-bonded Oxygen

They allow sugars to form rings in aqueous solutions

2 types of carbonyl: Aldehyde and ketone

a TERMINAL carbonyl

the double bonded Oxygen is on the END

AL ending

NON-terminal carbonyl

Double bonded oxygen is NOT on end

O N E ending

They allow sugars to form rings in aqueous solutions

have a CARBONYL and a HYDROXYL on the same carbon

Acts as an acid

have ONE NITROGEN and TWO HYDROGENS

Acts as a base

PO4

Acts as an acid

Is the nucleotides of ATP

SH “thiols” ending

found in amino acid CYSTEINE

Belongs to Sulfhydryl

Formed by sulfurs ditching their hydrogens and bonding together

it affects the 3D shape of the protein

NON POLAR (unlike the rest)

carbon is part of the functional group (CH3)

DNA is methylated (has methyls stuck onto it) ESPECIALLY at the promoters

Where the enzymes for transcription bind (every gene has one)

every promoter has an optimal methylation pattern that promotes optimal gene expression (transcript and translation)

Yes, if your methylation pattern changes then so does your gene expression

Increased transcription and translation (gene expression)

Decreased transcription and translation (gene expression)

Diet and exercise

Poor diet and exercise = deviation from optimal

Good diet and exercise = optimal gene expression

Whatever methylation patterns are present in the parents at the time of conception are passed down to the child

Doctors recommend parents spend ONE YEAR practicing good diet and exercise before conception

Carbohydrates and fats are primarily the electron donors for cellular respiration

Technically, yes, but they SHOULD NOT be

Proteins and Nucleic Acids break down molecules into their components and re-use them

things that your body cannot make that are essential to your diet

essential to diet but cannot be made by your body

plant and fish fats

we get these from meat (protein)

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides

one sugar

ex: glucose, fructose, etc

two sugars

ex: sucrose

between 10-30ish units of sugar (it varies)

found OUTSIDE of the PLASMA MEMBRANE

can be 100s or 1000s of units long

makes up starches and non-starches

simple sugars and complex carbs

made up of mono and disaccharides

rapidly expelled from stomach into the intestine

rapidly absorbed from the intestine into the blood stream

blood stream is overwhelmed with sugar and your INSULIN SPIKES

Made up of polysaccharides

they sit in the stomach for a long time

they are absorbed slowly through the intestine and your insulin does NOT spike

feel full for longer, eat less often

your stomach empties faster, so you’re hungrier more often and you eat more

it’s easy to convert sugar into fat and it’s hard to break down fat

Can be found in either simple sugars OR complex carbs

No nutritive value, only sugar (pasta, white potatoes, coke, juice)

plant and animal starches (starch (plant) glycogen (animals))

stored in the muscles of animals

NON starches

they are FIBERS

we do NOT have the enzymes to digest these

things that our gut bacteria CAN digest

the bacteria release byproducts that are beneficial to us (vitamins)

ex: E.coli in the large intestine produces vitamin K

CANNOT be digested by gut bacteria

forms the bulk of our solid waste

includes plant’s cell walls

fats, phospholipids, and steroids

primarily electron donors

glycerol backbone, can have 1,2, or 3 fatty acid tails

3 carbons and 3 hydroxyls

about 12-20 carbons long with a carboxyl on one end

they are saturated with hydrogen

NO DOUBLE BONDS between CARBONS on fatty acid tail

They are SOLID at room temp because the fat molecules can pack tightly together when there are no double bonds between carbons on the tail

one or more double bonds between the carbons on the fatty acid tail

ONE double bond between carbons on fatty acid tail

one or MORE double bonds between carbons on fatty acid tail

naturally occurring unsaturated fats

They are LIQUID at room temp because where there are double bonds, the tail BENDS (kinky fats) and it prevents tight packing

They can easily break down unsaturated fats

to replenish/rebuild membranes (fatty fish like salmon and tuna)

To make a PLANT OIL solid at room temp

this increases the aesthetic appeal for customers (no separation)

converts a cis-unsaturated fat into a trans unsaturated fat to get it to behave like a saturated fat (solid at room temp)

Fats and diglycerides (phospholipids are the most biologically important diglycerides and have 2 fatty acid tails)

a backbone of 4 fused rings

a carbon at the corner of each rings

the 4 fused rings are NON-POLAR and HYDROPHOBIC

they determine the function and polarity of the steroid

An integral part of the cell membrane (especially in ANIMALS)

Cholesterol is NON polar, so it doesn’t want to interact with water in the blood stream, so it needs a carrier molecule to carry it through the blood stream

Low Density Lipoprotein

BAD cholesterol carrier

sticks to artery walls (plaque) and can cause clots

comes from an ANIMAL DIET

causes them to lose elasticity

this is bad because they need to be able to contract to keep blood flowing

High density lipoprotein

GOOD cholesterol carrier

does NOT stick to artery walls and REMOVES LDL from walls

it can reverse plaque and clot formation, but cannot restore elasticity

comes form plant and fish diet

Trans fat converts HDL into LDL

uses natural sex hormones to control your uterine cycle by preventing implantation and preventing ovulation

prevents a fertilized egg from implanting itself in the uterine lining by using hormones

for those who think life begins at conception, this is abortion

makes your body think you’re pregnant so you don’t ovulate and therefore cannot fertilize eggs

makes you gain weight

can change feelings towards romantic partners

Amino acids

20

they all have the same backbone, but differ in residues

functional groups are located on the residues, and they convey different properties to amino acids

They are the only biological structure with a true 3D shape

tertiary structure

The structure MUST be correct in order to fit its function

shape=function

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Quaternary

name of bond: peptide bonds

type of bond: covalent

attaches all the amino acids together and creates a chain of amino acids

2 types: Alpha Helix and Beta Pleated Sheet

both are made up of HYDROGEN bonds between the functional groups on the backbone

exists in sugars and starches

it’s a coil

the hydrogen bonds are between the coils

two types of the same polypeptide next to each other

hard for body to break down, hard to digest

looks like two zigzags on top of each other with h bonds connecting them

TRUE 3D SHAPE

the protein is folded up on to itself

contains alpha helix and beta pleated sheet still

the unique properties of each amino acid aka:

functional groups on residues interacting with each other causes the 3D shape

form hydrogen bonds

form ionic bonds

name of bond: disulfide bridge

bond type: covalent

they don’t want to interact with water

they DO NOT BOND but instead huddle together to avoid water

When residues don’t bond with one another but rather huddle together to avoid water

ONLY found in proteins with multiple polypeptide subunits that work together

quaternary structures are the interactions that hold the subunits together (same interactions as tertiary)

The sub-units stack incorrectly and changes the shape of the protein

ex: sickle cell anemia

8 in adults, 9 in infants

the body cannot make them

a diet is considered a complete protein when it provides all 8 amino acids (ANIMAL DIET)

does NOT include all 8 amino acids (plant diet)

Two hormones that regulate blood sugar

the pancreas

The beta cells in the pancreas produce insulin when blood sugar levels are too high