PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERM

neurotransmitter

a chemical messenger that transmits signals between neurons or from neurons to muscles.

GABA

an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps to regulate brain activity and reduce anxiety by blocking certain signals in the central nervous system.

Methamphetamine

a highly addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, leading to increased alertness, energy, and euphoria.

Cocaine

a highly addictive stimulant drug that is extracted from the leaves of the coca plant. It produces feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and alertness by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the brain.

Caffeine

a substance that stimulates the central nervous system, leading to increased alertness and decreased fatigue. It is typically present in beverages such as coffee, tea, and energy drinks.

Alcohol

a depressant that affects the central nervous system, causing impaired judgment, coordination, and slurred speech.

Ectasy

a drug that alters mood and perception. It is also known as MDMA and is commonly used in party and club settings. The drug can cause feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and emotional warmth. However, it can also lead to dangerous side effects such as dehydration, overheating, and serotonin syndrome.

REM

a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, low muscle tone, and vivid dreaming. It is also known as paradoxical sleep because the brain is active, but the body is paralyzed.

Sigmund Freud

an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.

Morphine

an opioid pain medication used to treat severe pain. Its side effects include drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, sweating, and dry mouth. It can also cause respiratory depression, low blood pressure, and confusion.

Heroin

a highly addictive substance derived from the opium poppy plant which can cause euphoria, pain, relief, and drowsiness. An overdose can lead to respiratory depression and death.

Epinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone that is produced naturally by the body in response to stress, fear, or danger. It binds to specific receptors in the body to increase heart rate, blood pressure, and airway diameter, and to decrease inflammatory responses

Endorphins

Natural hormones produced by the body that act as neurotransmitters in the brain. They can help reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure or euphoria. They are released during physical activity or by other activities such as eating spicy foods, laughing, or listening to music. They work by binding to specific receptors in the brain and spinal cord to block pain signals and produce a sense of well-being.

Substance P

A type of protein molecule that acts as a neurotransmitter in the body. It is involved in the transmission of pain signals and the regulation of inflammation and immune responses. It works by binding to specific receptors in the body, which can lead to the activation of various pathways and the modulation of pain perception and physiological pathways.

Dopamine

A type of neurotransmitter, which is a chemical messenger in the brain and nervous system that helps transmit signals between nerve cells. It is involved in various functions, including movement, motivation, reward, and pleasure. It is involved in several neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, Schizophrenia, and addiction.

Activation Synthesis

A theory proposed to explain the mechanism of dreaming. According to this theory, dreams are generated by the random firing of neurons in the brainstem during REM sleep stage. The brainstem sends signals to the cortex to interpret these random neural impulses, resulting in the creation of dream imagery and narrative (dreams are not necessarily meaningful or symbolic, but rather byproduct of the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep).

Recall

The process of retrieving information that has been previously learned and stored in memory. It refers to the ability to access and bring to mind previously learned information or experiences. Recall can be affected by the strength and organization of the original memory, the presence of contextual cues, and the passage of time.

Episodic Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves the ability to recall specific personal experiences or events from the past. It refers to the memory of an episode or episode of life that has a specific context, time, and place. Often characterized by vivid sensory details associated with the remembered event, such as sight, sound, smells, and emotions.

State-Dependent Memory

A phenomenon in which memory is influenced by the individual’s current and physiological or psychological state. It suggests that memory is best retrieved when a person’s state of consciousness or mood matches the state in which the memory was originally encoded.

Latent Learning

A type of learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement or immediate reward. Learning that occurs unintentionally and is not immediately demonstrated through observable behavior.

Observational Learning

A type of learning that occurs through observing and imitating the behavior of others. It is also known as social learning or modeling. Includes the acquisition of new behaviors, attitudes, or values by watching others perform them, rather than through direct experience or reinforcement.

Encoding Failure

A phenomenon in memory psychology where information fails to be stored in long-term memory due to a failure to properly encode the information during the initial learning or encoding stages. Can occur dues to a lack of attention or focus during the initial learning phase, inadequate processing of information, or insufficient rehearsal or repetition.

Implicit Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves the unconscious or automatic retrieval of information and past experiences without conscious awareness or intentional effort. Examples include motor skills such as riding a bike, playing an instrument, or typing on a keyboard, as well as cognitive skills such as recognizing faces, completing a crossword puzzle, or solving a math problem.

Spontaneous Recovery

A phenomenon in which a previously extinguished conditioned response re-emerges after a period of time, without any additional training or conditioning. Occurs in classical conditioning.

Deductive Reasoning

A type of reasoning that involves drawing specific conclusions from general principles or premises through logical and rational processes. Often described as ‘top-down’ reasoning, as it starts with a general principle or premise and moves towards a specific conclusion.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason, think abstractly, solve problems, and adapt to new situations, independent of acquired knowledge or experience. It is the capacity to use logical thinking and mental flexibility to solve novel problems, learn new concepts, and reason in real-world situations.

Elizabeth Loftus

A prominent American Psychologist and expert on human memory. She is best known for her research on false memories and the malleability of human memory. Her research has shown that memory is not always an accurate representation of past events, and that it can be distorted or influenced by a variety of factors, such as suggestion, leading questions, and post-event information.

Short-Term Memory

The temporary storage and processing of information that is needed for immediate tasks or activities. It has limited capacity and duration, and can hold a small amount of information for a brief period of time, typically a few seconds to a minute.

Semantic Memory

A type of long-term memory that stores general knowledge and concepts about the world, independent of personal experiences. It involves the mental representation of facts, ideas, meanings, and relationships between different concepts, such as the meanings of words, the properties of objects, and the rules of grammar. Essentially for everyday activities: communication, problem-solving, and decision making.

Procedural Memory

A type of long-term memory that stores information about how to perform skilled movements and actions, such as riding a bicycle, typing on a keyboard, or playing a musical instrument. Involves the acquisition and refinement of motor skills and habits through practice and repetition.

Retroactive Interference

A phenomenon that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall or retrieval of previously learned information.

Proactive Interference

A phenomenon that occurs when previously learned information interferes with a acquisition or recall of learned information.

Source Amnesia

A type of memory error that occurs when a person has a memory of an event, idea, or experience, but cannot recall the source or context in which the memory was acquired.

Encoding Failure

A type of memory failure that occurs when memory is not properly encoded or stored in memory. Failure to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory

Retrieval Failure

A type of memory failure that occurs when information that has been previously encoded and stored in long-term memory cannot be retrieved or accessed. Inability to access a memory that is believed to be stored in long-term memory.

Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory that is responsible for storing visual information for a brief period of time. It refers to the visual images that are briefly stored in the sensory memory system after a visual stimulus is presented. Lasts for only a fraction of a second and is rapidly replaced by the next incoming visual information.

Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory that is responsible for storing auditory information for a brief period of time. Lasts for only a few seconds, allowing us to perceive and comprehend speech and other sounds.

Retrograde Amnesia

A type of Amnesia that refers to the loss of memory for events or information that occured before a particular point in time.

Selective Amnesia

A type of memory loss or forgetting that is selective or specific to certain events, experiences, or information. May occur as a result of stress, trauma, or defense mechanisms, or may be caused by physical factors such as brain damage or illness.

Levels of Processing

The three levels of processing are shallow (processing information based on its physical features), intermediate (processing information based on its acoustic or phonemic features), and deep (processing information based on its meaning and significance. Involves relating the information to other knowledge and experience).

Misattribution

A cognitive process in which a person attributes thought, feelings, or behavior to the wrong source or origin.

Serial Position Effect

A cognitive phenomenon that describes how the position of an item in a list can affect how well it is remembered. This effect is based on the principle that people tend to remember the first and last items in a list better than the items in the middle.

Primary Effect

A component of the serial position effect in memory, which describes the tendency for people to remember the first items in a list better than the middle items.

Recency Effect

A component of the serial position effect in memory, which describes the tendency for people to remember the last items in a list better than middle items.

Misinformation Effect

A cognitive phenomenon were a person’s memory of an event can be altered or distorted by exposure to misleading information

Top-Down Processing

A cognitive process in which a person’s prior knowledge, expectations, and context are used to interpret sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

A cognitive process in which sensory information is used to form a perception or understanding of a stimulus.

Parallel Processing

A cognitive process in which multiple sources of information are processed simultaneously. It involves the ability to process several pieces of information at the same time, without having to focus on one particular source of information.

Retinal Disparity

The difference between the images that are perceived by each eye due to their slightly different positions in the head.

Memory Decay

The idea that memories fade over time if they are not reinforced or retrieved. If memory is not used or accessed for a period of time, it will gradually become weaker and more difficult to retrieve in the future.

Imprinting

A type of learning that occurs early in life, typically during a critical period and involves that formation of strong and lasting attachments to specific individuals or objects.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible or otherwise detectable through the senses. This concept is an important milestone in cognitive development, as it represents a significant shift in an infant’s understanding of the world around them.

Accommodation

A term used in psychology and cognitive science to describe the process by which individuals adjust their existing beliefs or mental framework to account for new information or experiences.

Secure Attachment

A type of attachment style that is characterized by trust, comfort, and a sense of safety in close relationships. It is one of several attachment types that can develop between infants and their primary caregivers, and is generally considered the healthiest and most adaptive attachment styles.

Wernicke’s Area

A region of the brain that is primarily associated with language comprehension and understanding. It is located in the left hemisphere of the brain in a region known as the posterior superior temporal gyrus.

Linguistic Determinism

A concept in linguistic theory that suggest that language has the power to influence the way we think and perceive the world around us.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Proposes that the structure and vocabulary of a language shape the thoughts, perceptions, and behavior of its speakers.

Temperament

The innate or biologically-based aspects of an individual’s personality that determines their characteristic emotional behavioral responses to the world around them. Largely determined by genetic and biological factors.

Critical Periods

Specific developmental windows during which an organism is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli and experiences. These periods are crucial for the normal development of various physiological and cognitive functions, and they occur during specific times in an organism’s life cycle.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort or psychological stress experienced by a person who holds two or more conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes, or is faced with information that contradicts their existing beliefs, values, or attitudes.

Harry Harlow

An American Psychologist who is best known for his groundbreaking research on the importance of early attachment and socialization in infant monkeys. His research on social isolation and maternal separation in monkeys helped to revolutionize our understanding of the importance of socialization and attachment in human development.

Moro Reflex

An involuntary response that is commonly observed in newborn infants. It is one of several primitive reflexes that are present in infants and are believed to have evolutionary origins. It is characterized by the following movements: Infant is suddenly startled by a loud noise or sudden movement, extends their arms and legs outward, and brings their arms and legs back toward their body in a hugging embracing motion.

Conservation

The understanding that certain physical characteristics of objects or substances remain the same even when their outward appearance or arrangement changes (water is poured from short to tall glass but the volume of water remains the same).

Habituation

A process of learning in which an organism becomes accustomed to a particular stimulus after repeated exposure to it. Occurs when an organism learns to stop responding to a stimulus that has become familiar or routine.

Zone of Proximal Development

A concept developed to describe the difference between what a learner can do on their own and what they can do with guidance and support from someone more knowledgeable. The area or range of tasks or activities that a learner can accomplish with the help of a teacher, parent, or more knowledgeable peer.

Egocentrism

A concept in developmental psychology that refers to a child’s tendency to view the world from their own perspectives and have difficulty understanding that others have different viewpoints, thoughts, or feelings.

Preconventional Thought

A concept in which individuals progress through stages of moral development as they mature and gain experience. Stage 1: Obedience and punishment and orientation (primarily concerned with avoiding punishment; obey rules and authority figures). Stage 2: Individualism and exchange (begin to understand that there are different perspectives and that others may have different needs and desires. Recognize that there may be benefits to cooperating and sharing with others

Jean Piaget

A Swiss Psychologist best known for his pioneering work in the field of developmental psychology. Best known for his theory of cognitive development, which proposes that children progress through four stages of cognitive development as they grow and mature.

Erik Erikson

A German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst is best known for his theory of psychosocial development: individuals go through eight stages of development throughout their lifespan, each with its own unique psychological crisis or challenge. These stages begin in infancy and continue through late adulthood, with each stage building on the previous one and laying the foundation for the next.

Identity V Role Confusion

The fifth stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage typically occurs during adolescence, between the ages of 12 and 18. During this stage, individuals are confronted with the task of developing a sense of personal identity. They are exploring different social roles, relationships, and personal values as they try to establish their own unique identity.

Intimacy V Isolation

The sixth stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage typically occurs during early adulthood, between the ages of 18 and 40. During this stage individuals are tasked with the task of establishing close and intimate relationships with others. They are seeking to establish deep, meaningful connections with others while balancing their need to independence and autonomy.

Generativity V Stagnation

The seventh stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage typically occurs during middle adulthood, between the ages of 40 and 65. During this stage, individuals are confronted with the task of finding a sense of purpose and contributing to the world around them. They are seeking to establish a sense of generativity, that is, a sense of productivity and creativity that allows them to contribute to society and leave a positive legacy for future generations.

Obedience

The act of complying with the orders, commands, requests of an authority figure. A fundamental aspect of many social structures, including family, school, and workplace setting.

Normative Social Influence

A type of social influence that occurs when an individual conforms to the behavior or attitude of a group in order to be accepted or avoid rejection. This type of influence is driven by the desire to fit in with a group and be seen as socially desirable or acceptable.

Informational Social Influence

A type of social influence that occurs when an individual conforms to the behavior or attitudes of a group because they believe that the group has accurate information or knowledge. This type of influence is driven by the desire to be correct or accurate in one’s beliefs or judgement.

Fundamental Attribution Error

A cognitive bias that describes the tendency to overemphasize dispositional (internal) explanations for the behavior of others while under emphasizing situational (external) explanations.

Deindividuation

A social psychological concept that describes the loss of individual identity and self-awareness that can occur when individuals become A a part of a larger group or crowd. This phenomenon is often characterized by a reduction in inhibitions, a lack of self-awareness, and an increase in impulsive or irrational behavior.

Bystander Effect

A social phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to offer help or assistance to someone in need when other people are present. This occurs because individuals tend to look to others to determine how to behave in a situation, and when others are present and not offering help, individuals may assume that help is not needed or that someone else will take action.

In-Group Bias

A social psychological phenomenon in which individuals show favoritism towards members of their own group over members of other groups. This bias can manifest in a variety of ways, including through attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and judgements.

Stereotype Threat

A social psychological phenom in which individuals are members of a particular social group may experience anxiety and reduced performance when faced with a situation that reinforces negative stereotypes about their group.

Social Loafing

A social psychological phenomenon in which individuals exert less effort or motivation when working on a task as part of a group than when working alone. This occurs because individuals feel less personal responsibility for the outcome of the task, and may feel that their individual contribution is less important or necessary.

Groupthink

A social psychological phenomenon in which a group of individuals prioritize consensus and cohesion over critical thinking and rational decision making. Can occur when a group is highly cohesive, has a strong leader or authority, and lacks diversity of opinion or perspective.

Social Facilitation

A social psychological phenomenon in which the presence of others enhances an individual’s performance on a task. This effect can occur for simple or well-learned tasks, as the presence of others can create arousal and increase motivation, leading to improved performance.

Stanley Milgram

An American psychologist who is best known for his controversial research on obedience to authority. He conducted a series of experiments to study how people obeyed or disobeyed authority figures, even when it meant inflicting harm on others (electrical shock experiments).

Solomon Asch

An American social psychologist who is best known for his research on conformity. He conducted a series of experiments in which participants were asked to judge the length of lines, with a group of confederates deliberately providing incorrect answers. The purpose of the study was to investigate the extent to which individuals would conform to group norms, even if they believed the group was wrong.

Philip Zimbardo

An American Psychologist and professor at Stanford University best known for his famous Stanford Prison Experiment, which he conducted to study the psychological effects of power and authority.

Stanford Prison

usiA social psychology experiment to investigate the psychological effects of power and authority, and the dynamics of prison life. The experiment involved the random assignment of participants to play the role of prisoners or guards in a simulated prison environment. The study quickly descended into chaos, with the guards exhibiting abusive and sadistic behavior towards the prisoners, and the prisoners experiencing psychological distress and extreme submissive behavior.

Situationism

A theory that emphasizes the role of external situational factors in influencing human behavior, rather than individual personality traits or other internal factors

Scapegoat Theory

A concept that refers to the tendency for individuals or groups to blame others for their own problems or failures. This theory suggests that people often seek to find a target for their frustrations, and that this target may be a person or group that is seen as different or vulnerable.

Foot-In-Door Phenomenon

A concept that refers to the tendency for people to comply with a large request after first agreeing to a smaller, more manageable request. This phenomenon occurs because the initial small request creates a sense of commitment and consistency, making it more likely that the person will agree to the larger request.

The Lucifer Effect

A term to describe the phenomenon of ordinary people engaging in evil or destructive behavior when placed in certain situational contexts

The Roots of Evil

Situational factors, individual factors, social and cultural factors, and historical and political factors.

Ervin Staub

A American Psychologist who has dedicated much of career studying the roots of violence, genocide, and mass atrocities. He is known for his work on the psychology of bystanders, the role of socialization in the development of aggression, and the ways in which individuals and communities can prevent and respond to violence.