AP Bio Units 1 and 2

The variable that is being changed by the scientist

The variable that’s being measured by the scientist and is affected by a change to the independent variable

Simplest unit of macromolecules

Large macromolecules, made of repeating monomers linked with covalent bonds

Free ribosomes float in the cytosol while bound one are attached to the ER or nuclear envelope

Through dehydration synthesis

The building of complex molecules by bringing two smaller ones together, removing an H2O molecule and replacing it with a bond

The reverse of dehydration synthesis, when water is added to break the bonds between a molecule

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

1:2:1

Short-term energy storage and structure

Starch is alpha linked; cellulose is beta linked.

In starch

In glycogen

They use cellulose for stability in cell walls

Fungi use chitin for support in cell walls, insects use it for structure in exoskeletons.

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

Long-term energy storage and insulation.

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids connected through dehydration synthesis.

Single bonds between the carbons, they stack and are difficult to break. Solid at room temperature

At least one double bond between the carbons. Liquid at room temperature

Modified triglycerides with a polar head and two non-polar tails

Characterized by 4 fused carbon rings. (Cholesterol and some hormones)

Proteins

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur

They’re joined with peptide bonds

Amino acid monomers

Compounds that make up proteins and polypeptide chains. They vary based on the ‘R’ group and are characterized by a central carbon atom joining an amino group and a carboxyl group

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary structure

Sequence of Amino Acids joined by peptide bonds. The order of the amino acids is dictated by DNA

The result of hydrogen bonding of atoms in the Carbon-Nitrogen backbone of the polypeptide chain, causing the protein to fold into and alpha helix or beta pleated sheet

The specific 3-D shape the protein folds itself up into. It happens through interaction between R-group atoms. The structure is generally stabilized by outside polar hydrophilic hydrogen and ionic bond interactions, and internal hydrophobic interactions between non-polar amino acid side chains. The way the protein folds determines its function.

The only optional step of protein structure. When the polypeptide chains combine with non-covalent bonds to form one functional protein.

1. Storing amino acids

2. Building structure/Fibrous framework

3. Hormones (coordinating organism activity)

4. Defense

5. Transport of Substances

6. Receptor of cell-cell chemical stimuli

7. Movement (contraction and motor proteins)

8. Enzymes (acceleration of chemical reactions)

Change in structure of the protein due to high temperature, high acidity, high salinity, etc. Protein becomes biologically inactive.

Found within nucleus and produces ribosomes

Information storage

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorous

A phosphate, pentose sugar, and one of the four nitrogenous bases.

The monomer that makes up nucleic acids

Cells with no organelles but ribosomes and DNA clusters. (bacteria cells)

Cells subdivided with internal membranes into various membrane-enclosed organelles (plant and animal cells)

Because a small size helps maintain a high surface-area-to-volume ratio.

Because it ensures the rate of chemical exchange is adequate for the cell’s survival as only a limited amount of substances can cross the membrane per second.

They’re specialized structures with specialized functions that partition the cell into compartments and provide membranes to act as sites for reactions.

The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles.

A way of describing the cellular membrane, due to the phospholipid bilayer, it’s fluid and studded with various proteins.

Nucleus (mRNA) → Ribosomes (protein is made) → ER and Golgi Apparatus → (protein structures are formed) → Vacuole (delivers protein to where it’s needed)

Programmed cell death, lysosomes break open and kill cells.

Large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi Apparatus, used in transport and storage of materials

Only found in animal cells, they digest large molecules with enzymes and clean up broken-down molecules. They can fill with undigested material if enzymes don’t work, which can disrupt cell function.

The engulfing of molecules by the cell membrane

Group of organelles in eukaryotic cells which forms a network

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

They have separate DNA and grow and reproduce on their own within the cell.

This theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living bacteria that were engulfed by an ancestral eukaryote.

A cell that lives within another cell. One provides energy, the other supplies raw materials or protection

The potential energy of water; its tendency to move

determined by the solute concentration, as amount of solute increases, the solute potential decreases

The amount of pressure exerted on the cell by the cell wall

φ=φs+φp

Zero, it has the highest water potential, all other water potential is negative.

Water flows from areas of high potential to those of low potential

φs= -iCRT

i= ionization constant, for all sugars it’s one, for salts it’s two

C= molecular concentration of solute

R= pressure constant (.0831 liters/bars/moles for sucrose)

T= Temperature in Kelvin (273+ temp C)

They have a carbonyl group (C=O) and multiple hydroxyl groups (-OH). The location of the carbonyl group determines whether the sugar is a aldose or ketose.

A glycosidic linkage or covalent bond formed by dehydration synthesis

As granules within cellular structures, or plastids

Mostly in liver and muscle cells

In cellulose, every other glucose monomer is “upside down”

To shield their hydrophobic tails from the water.

A polymer of amino acids

Possess both an amino group and a carboxyl group

An inherited blood disorder caused by the substitution of one amino acid for the normal one at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin resulting in the deformation of the cell

Protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins.

All are bound by a plasma membrane, contain cytosol, chromosomes, and ribosomes.

Semifluid substance within all cells that suspends all subcellular components

Polar molecules (except water), charged ions, and large molecules

Transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, and attachment to cytoskeleton.

It allows it to be fluid and for molecules to pass through

Because they’re non-polar so they must covalently bond to a phospholipid head or protein in order to not be repelled from the cell membrane.

The passive transport of non-polar hydrophobic molecules that follows the concentration gradient

The passive transport of polar, hydrophilic molecules through a protein channel; follows the concentration gradient.

The diffusion against the concentration gradient using a protein pump and ATP

The voltage across a membrane. The cytoplasmic side has a negative change with respect to the extracellular side due to the unequal distribution of anions and cations. Because of this, membrane potential favors the passive transport of cations into the cell and anions out.

Bringing large molecules into the cell by engulfing them using ATP

The release of large molecules from the cell

The diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane

The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or loose water

The solution has equal amounts of solute as the cell, so there’s no net water gain or loss by the cell

The solution has more solute that the cell, cell looses water and shrivels

Solution has less solute than the cell, cell gains water and swells

When the cell bursts due to a large influx of water

The healthy state for plant cells, full of water

The particles dissolved in a solution

Has attached ribosomes; involved in the producing and transporting of proteins

synthesizes lipids like cholesterol or phospholipids; aids in detoxification.

Receives proteins from ER, further modifies, sorts, and transports molecules.

Make ATP through cellular respiration using glucose and O2

Make glucose using light energy