Research Methods

Scientific method

Theory, Hypothesis, Collect data (do research), analysis, replication/corroboration

Naturalistic Observation Disadvantages

No controls, participants alter behavior

naturalistic observation advantages

not intrusive, provides new info

Surveys/self report inventories advantages

cheap and easy data collection, provides broad characteristics of groups

Surveys/self report inventories disadvantages

talk vs action, demand characteristics, social desirability, framing

Case Study advantages

observe rare/unethical events

Case study disadvantages

no control, labor intensive

Cross sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another, it is shorter and the drop out rates are lower

Longitudinal studies

A research method that studies the same participants multiple times over a period of time, higher drop out rate, takes longer

IRB/IACUC approval

The IRB reviews research that involves human participants. Research involving animals must be reviewed by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) before it begins.

Informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants are told to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

withdrawing at any time

an ethical principle for research participants that allows them to leave the experiment at any time

minimal stress

ethical principle that the study must be not harm the well being of the participant.

confidentiality assured

Identity of participant not revealed

debrief at end

An example of debriefing can be used during an experiment whereby the researchers had to use some form of deception for the purpose of the study. In this case, during the debriefing session, the researchers would explain why they used deception and explain the purpose of it.

milgram experiment

an experiment devised in 1961 by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure

stanford prison study

A social psychological study conducted at Stanford University by Philip Zimbardo. Its aim was to study the impact of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play the role of either prisoner or guard. This study was terminated early because of the role-induced punitive behavior on the part of the "guards."

"Little Albert"

Watson's study on the generalization of fear. Conditioning subject to be afraid, proved classical conditioning principles

Tuskegee experiment

an infamous historical study in which core values of research (respect for persons, beneficence, and justice) were violated

cognitive approach

deals with thought, perception, action, using language, and learning

biological approach

deals with how the physical body contributes to mind and behavior (chemically and genetically)

behavioral approach

The behavioral approach suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment.

pyschoanalytic/pyschodynamic approach

method developed my Sigmund Freud. attempts to bring contents of unconscious into conscious awareness so conflicts can be revealed

humanistic approach

approach that emphasized how people can come to know and accept themselves in order to reach their unique potentials

social/cultural approach

focuses on how behavior is affected by society and culture

biopsychosocial approach

focuses on how the 3 interconnected areas affect human health/development

Bio- biological

Psycho- psychological

Social- social

Evolutionary psychology approach

views how the brain its activity and consequent behaviors have evolved over millions of years in response to ancestors' problems of survival/reproduction

Basically, attempts to explain mental traits as a product of natural selection

gestalt psychology approach

"the whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its parts"

structuralism vs functionalism

Structuralism suggests that the goal of psychology is to study the structure of the mind and consciousness, while functionalism puts forth that understanding the purpose of the mind and consciousness is the aim of psychology. Functionalism was developed as a response to structuralism

biological domain

covers fields like neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, sensation, and consciousness.

clinical domain

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

cognitive domain

studies thought processes and focuses on topics like perception, language, attention, problem solving, memory, judgement and decision making, forgetting, and intelligence.

counseling domain

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

developmental domain

An area of development such as fine and gross motor skills, cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities, and social and communication skills.

educational domain

studies how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

experimental domain

concerned with testing theories of human thoughts, feelings, actions, and beyond

industrial-organizational domain

the scientific study of human behavior in organizations and the workplace.

personality domain

the scientific study of individual differences in people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior

psychometric domain

the field in psychology devoted to testing, measurement, assessment and related activities.

social domain

a theory of moral psychology that examines social reasoning and behavior from a developmental perspective

positive domain

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Calkins, Mary

First female president of the APA

Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Dorothea Dix

Rights activist on behalf of mentally ill patients - created first wave of US mental asylums

Freud

psychoanalytic theory, The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious.

G Stanley Hall

american psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Piaget

theorist that developed a series of stages in which an individual passes during cognitive development.

elizabeth loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony. Her experiments reveal how memories can be changed by things that we are told.

Mary cover jones

"mother of behavior therapy"; used classical conditioning to help "Peter" overcome fear of rabbits

Mamie and Kenneth Clark

*Conducted research on African-American children's self-conceptions and identity (1939)

*Kenneth Clark (1971) first African-American president of APA

Carl rogers

Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

B F Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA (1921)

Claude Steele

American social psychologist best known for his work on stereotype threat, a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Beverly Daniel Tatum

African-American scholar and educational leader whose academic work focuses on the development of race-consciousness.

J.B Watson

founder of behaviorism, behaviorist theory focused not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and outward behaviors. He believed that a person's physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions.

naturalistic observation

observer is passive, makes no attempt to change behavior

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

participant bias

a tendency for research participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed, or they believe they know what the researcher wants

Sampling/Selection Bias

a bias in sampling in which the sampling procedures employed in a study favor certain individuals or groups over others

group matching

Ensuring that the experimental groups are equivalent on some criterion (ex: sex, IQ, Age...)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

extraneous variable

In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV.

counterbalancing

all possible orders of presentation are included in the experiment

single blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

lurking variable

a variable that is not among the explanatory or response variables in a study but that may influence the response variable

Independent Variable

variable that gets manipulated

Dependent Variable

variable that gets measured

Operational Definition

qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable

Corroboration

Replication

helps prove something by providing additional support

Generalizable Results

for the results to be applicable to entire population

they need to be

1. Random Sample

2. Random Assignment

Sample vs. Population

_____ = a subset of a population that you study

vs.

______= everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in

Random Assignment vs Random Sample

_____ = participants assigned randomly to control or experiment group

vs.

_____ = sample taken at random where everyone has the exact same chance to be chosen

Experimental Group vs. Control Group

_________ = participants who receive the treatment

vs.

_________ = similar participants who receive everything the experimental group does EXCEPT FOR THE TREATMENT