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CHAPTER 17 - European Renaissance and Reformation (1300-1600) - World History: Patterns of Interaction (Atlas by Rand McNally 2009)
CHAPTER 17 - European Renaissance and Reformation (1300-1600) - World History: Patterns of Interaction (Atlas by Rand McNally 2009)
CHAPTER 17.1: Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance
- The Renaissance - A term that means "rebirth", the movement that started in Italy which caused an explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought. It approximately lasted from 1300-1600
- The educated men and women of Italy hoped to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome
- In attempts to revive the past, the Renaissance created something entirely new
- The contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art, literature, new values (importance of the individual)
- The Renaissance eventually spread from northern Italy to the rest of Europe
- Italy had three advantages that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance:
- thriving cities
- a wealthy merchant class
- the classical heritage of Greece and Rome
- Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, had led to the growth of large city-states in northern Italy
- The region had many sizable towns, so northern Italy was urban while the rest of Europe was mostly rural
- Since cities are often places where people exchange ideas, they were an ideal breeding ground for an intellectual revolution
- 1300s: the bubonic plague struck the cities hard, killing up to 60% of the population
- The plague brought about economic changes:
- Because there were fewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages
- With few opportunities to expand business, merchants began to pursue other interests, such as art
- A wealthy merchant class developed in each Italian city-state
- Because city-states like Milan/Florence were relatively small, a high percentage of citizens could be intensely involved in political life
- Merchants dominated politics
- Unlike nobles, merchants did not inherit social rank
- They used their wits to succeed in business
- As a result, many successful merchants believed they deserved power/wealth because of their individual merit
- The belief in individual achievement became important during the Renaissance
- Since the late 1200s, Florence had a republican form of government
- During the Renaissance, Florence came under the rule of one powerful banking family, the Medici
- The Medici family bank had branch offices throughout Italy and in the major cities of Europe
- Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European of his time
- 1434: he won control of Florence's government
- He did not seek political office for himself, but influenced members of the ruling council by giving them loans
- He was Florence's dictator for 30 years
- Cosimo de Medici died in 1464, but his family continued to control Florence
- His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, came to power in 1469, ruling as a dictator but keeping the appearance of having an elected government
- Renaissance scholars looked down on the art and literature of the Middle Ages
- They wanted to return to the learning of the Greeks/Romans
- They achieved this in several ways:
- The artists/scholars of Italy drew inspiration from the ruins of Rome that surrounded them
- Western scholars studied ancient Latin manuscripts that had been preserved in monasteries
- Christian scholars in Constantinople fled to Rome w/ Greek manuscripts when the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453
- The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements
- Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching like medieval scholars, humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values
- Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions/popularized the study of subjects common to classical education (history, literature, philosophy), which resulted in these subjects being called the humanities
- In the Middle Ages, some people had demonstrated their piety by wearing rough clothing and eating plain foods
- However, humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life without offending God
- In Renaissance Italy, the wealthy enjoyed material luxuries, good music, and fine foods
- Most people remained devout Catholics
- The basic spirit of Renaissance society was secular, worldly rather than spiritual/concerned with the here and now
- Church leaders became more worldly with some living in beautiful mansions, throwing lavish banquets, and wearing expensive clothing
- Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified Rome and other cities by spending huge amounts of money for art
- They were patrons for the arts by financially supporting artists
- Renaissance merchants/wealthy families were also patrons of the arts
- The wealthy demonstrated their own importance through having their portraits painted/donating art to the city in public squares
- Renaissance writers introduced the idea that all educated people were expected to create art
- The ideal individual strove to master every area of study
- A man who excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal man.” Later ages called such people “Renaissance men”
- According to The Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione (taught how to become a Renaissance man), upper-class women also should know the classics and be charming
- They were not expected to seek fame, to inspire art but rarely to create it
- Upper-class Renaissance women were better educated than medieval women, but most had little influence in politics
- A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power
- She married the ruler of another city-state, Mantua
- She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and built a famous art collection
- She was also skilled in politics
- When her husband was taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won his release
- Dozens of artists worked in northern Italy. As the Renaissance advanced, artistic styles changed
- Medieval artists had used religious subjects to convey a spiritual ideal, but Renaissance artists often portrayed religious subjects in a realistic style copied from classical models
- Greek/Roman subjects also became popular
- Renaissance painters used the technique of perspective, which shows three dimensions on a flat surface
- Painters began to paint prominent citizens
- Artists such as Michelangelo Buonarroti used a realistic style when depicting the human body
- Donatello also made sculptures more realistic by carving natural postures/expressions that reveal personality
- He revived a classical form in his statue of David, a boy who, according to the Bible, became a great king (late-1460s)
- Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientist
- He studied how a muscle moves/how veins are arranged in a leaf
- He filled his notebooks with observations/sketches and then incorporated his findings into art
- Raphael Sanzio was younger than Michelangelo and Leonardo
- He learned by studying their works
- One of Raphael’s favorite subjects was the Madonna and child
- He was famous for his use of perspective
- In his greatest achievement, Raphael filled the walls of Pope Julius II’s library with paintings
- One of these, the School of Athens, conveys the classical influence on the Renaissance
- Raphael painted famous Renaissance figures, such as Michelangelo, Leonardo, and himself, as classical philosophers and their students
- Renaissance society generally restricted women’s roles, but few Italian women became notable painters
- Sofonisba Anguissola:
- Was the first woman artist to gain an international reputation
- She is known for her portraits of her sisters/prominent people such as King Philip II of Spain
- Artemisia Gentileschi:
- Trained with her painter father/helped with his work
- Painted pictures of strong, heroic women
- Sofonisba Anguissola:
- Renaissance writers produced works that reflected their time, but they also used techniques that writers rely on today
- Some followed the example of the medieval writer Dante
- He wrote in the vernacular, his native language (Italian), instead of Latin
- Renaissance writers wrote either for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects
- Writers of the Renaissance began trends that modern writers still follow
- Francesco Petrarch was one of the earliest/most influential humanists
- Some have referred to him as the father of Renaissance humanism
- He was also a poet that wrote both in Italian/Latin
- Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio is best known for the Decameron, a series of realistic, sometimes off-color stories
- The Prince (1513) by Niccolo Machiavelli examines the imperfect conduct of human beings
- It does so by taking the form of a political guidebook
- Machiavelli examines how a ruler can gain power and keep it in spite of his enemies
- In answering this question, he began with the idea that most people are selfish, fickle, and corrupt
- To succeed in a wicked world, a prince must be strong as a lion/shrewd as a fox
- Machiavelli argued that in the real world of power/politics a prince must sometimes mislead the people/lie to his opponents
- Women writers who gained fame during the Renaissance usually wrote about personal subjects, not politics
- Vittoria Colonna (1492-1547) was born of a noble family
- 1509: She married the Marquis of Pescara
- Colonna exchanged sonnets with Michelangelo/helped Castiglione publish The Courtier
- Her own poems express personal emotions
- Toward the end of the 15th century, Renaissance ideas began to spread north from Italy
CHAPTER 17.2: The Northern Renaissance
- By 1450, the population of northern Europe that declined b/c of the bubonic plague was beginning to grow again When the Hundred Years' War ended in 1453, many cities grew rapidly
- Urban merchants became wealthy enough to sponsor artists
- As wealth increased in other parts of Northern Europe, patronage of arts increased
- England and France were unified under strong monarchs
- These rulers often sponsored the arts by purchasing paintings/by supporting artists/writers
- As Renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with northern traditions
- As a result, the northern Renaissance developed its own character
- Artists were especially interested in realism
- The Renaissance ideal of human dignity inspired some northern humanists to develop plans for social reform based on Judeo-Christian values
- 1494: a French king claimed the throne of Naples in southern Italy and launched an invasion through northern Italy
- Many Italian artists/writers left for a safer life in Northern Europe/brought their style & techniques of the Italian Renaissance
- Northern European artists who studied in Italy carried Renaissance ideas back to their homelands
- German artist Albrecht Dürer traveled to Italy to study in 1494
- After returning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and engravings
- Many of his prints portray religious subjects, others portray classical myths or realistic landscapes
- The popularity of Dürer’s work helped to spread Renaissance styles
- Dürer’s emphasis upon realism influenced the work of Hans Holbein the Younger
- Holbein specialized in painting portraits that are almost photographic in detail
- He emigrated to England where he painted portraits of King Henry VIII/other members of the English royal family
- The support of wealthy merchant families in Flanders helped to make Flanders the artistic center of northern Europe
- The first great Flemish Renaissance painter was Jan van Eyck
- Van Eyck used recently developed oil-based paints to develop techniques that painters still use
- He was able to create a variety of subtle colors in clothing/jewels by applying layer upon layer
- Oil painting became popular and spread to Italy
- van Eyck's paintings display unusually realistic details and reveal the personality of his subjects, which later influenced artists in Northern Europe
- Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work of Pieter Bruegel the Elder
- Bruegel was also interested in realistic details and individual people
- He captured scenes from everyday peasant life such as weddings, dances, and harvests
- Italian humanists were very interested in reviving classical languages/classical texts
- When the Italian humanist ideas reached the north, people used them to examine the traditional teachings of the Church
- The northern humanists were critical of the failure of the Christian Church to inspire people to live a Christian life
- This criticism produced a new movement known as Christian humanism
- The focus of Christian humanism was the reform of society
- Education was of particular importance to humanists
- The humanists promoted the education of women and founded schools attended by both boys/girls
- The best known of the Christian humanists were Desiderius Erasmus of Holland/Thomas More of England, who were close friends
- 1509: Erasmus wrote his most famous work: The Praise of Folly
- It poked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priests
- Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules
- He thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible
- 1516: Thomas More wrote Utopia
- Utopia in Greek means "no place"
- In English it has come to mean an ideal place as depicted in More’s book
- The book is about an imaginary land where greed, corruption, and war have been weeded out
- More wrote in Latin and as he became more popular, they were translated in a variety of languages
- During this period the vast majority of Europeans were unable to read or write
- Those families who could afford formal schooling usually sent only their sons
- Christine de Pizan spoke out against this practice:
- She was highly educated for the time and was one of the 1st women to earn a living as a writer
- She wrote in French and produced many books, including short stories, biographies, novels, and manuals on military techniques
- She frequently wrote about the objections men had to educate women
- de Pizan was one of the first European writers to question the different treatment of boys/girls
- The mid-1500s is referred to as the Elizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I
- Elizabeth reigned from 1558-1603
- She was well educated and spoke French, Italian, Latin, and Greek
- She also wrote poetry and music
- Elizabeth did much to support the development of English art/literature
- The most famous writer of the Elizabethan Age was William Shakespeare
- Most people regard him as the greatest playwright of all time
- Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small town about 90 miles northwest of London
- By 1592 he was living in London and writing poems and plays, and soon he would be performing at the Globe Theater
- Shakespeare also revered the classics and drew on them for inspiration/plots
- The Chinese invented block printing, in which a printer carved words or letters on a wooden block, inked the block, and then used it to print on paper
- 1045: Bi Sheng invented movable type, or a separate piece of type for each character in the language
- The Chinese writing system contains thousands of different characters, so most Chinese printers found movable type impractical
- Even though it was impractical in China, it was the opposite for Europeans because their languages have a small number of letters in their alphabets
- 13th century: block-printed items reached Europe from China
- European printers began to use block printing to create whole pages to bind into books
- This process was too slow to satisfy Renaissance demand for knowledge/books
- Around 1440, Johann Gutenberg, a craftsman from Mainz, Germany, developed a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies in a new way
- This made it possibly to quickly/cheaply produce books
- Gutenberg printed a complete Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, in about 1455: the first full-sized book printed with movable type
- The printing press enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a single work
- For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buy them
- At first printers produced mainly religious work and later began to provide books on other subjects such as travel guides/medical manuals
- The European Renaissance was a period of great artistic and social change
- It marked a break with the medieval-period ideals focused around the Church
- The Renaissance belief in the dignity of the individual played a key role in the gradual rise of democratic ideas
- Summary of the changes in arts:
- Art drew on techniques and styles of classical Greece and Rome
- Paintings/sculptures portrayed individuals and nature in more realistic/lifelike ways
- Artists created works that were secular as well as those that were religious
- Writers began to use vernacular languages to express their ideas
- The arts praised individual achievement
- Summary of the changes in society:
- Printing changed society by making more information available/inexpensive enough for society at large
- Greater availability of books prompted an increased desire for learning/a rise in literacy throughout Europe
- Published accounts of new discoveries, maps, and charts led to further discoveries in a variety of fields
- Published legal proceedings made the laws clear so that people were more likely to understand their rights
- Christian humanists’ attempts to reform society changed views about how life should be lived
- People began to question political structures/religious practices
CHAPTER 17.3: Luther Leads the Reformation
- By 1500, additional forces weakened the Church
- Renaissance emphasis on the secular/individual challenged Church authority
- The printing press spread these secular ideas
- Some rulers also began to challenge the Church's political power
- Germany was divided into many competing states, so it was difficult for the pope/the emperor to impose central authority
- Northern merchants resented paying church taxes to Rome
- A new movement for religious reform began in Germany then spread rapidly to Europe
- Critics of the Church claimed that its leaders were corrupt
- The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts, spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars
- Pope Alexander VI admitted that he fathered several children/many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have time for spiritual duties
- The lower clergy also had problems; many priests/monks were so poorly educated that they could barely read/teach people
- Others broke their priestly vows by marrying/some drank to excess/gambled
- People came to expect higher standards of conduct from priests/church leaders
- Late 1300s to early 1400s: John Wycliffe of England/Jan Hus of Bohemia advocated for Church reform
- They denied that the pope had the right to worldly power
- They also taught that the Bible had more authority than Church leaders did
- 1500s: Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus/Thomas More also voiced their criticisms
- Many Europeans were reading religious works/forming their own opinions about the Church
- 1517: Martin Luther decided to take a public stand against friar Johann Tetzel
- Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome and was funding it through indulgences
- Indulgences: A pardon; it released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. They were not supposed to affect God's right to judge
- Tetzel gave people the impressed that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven
- In response, Luther wrote 95 Theses, or formal statements, attacking the "pardon merchants"
- October 31, 1517, he posted these statements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him
- Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a printer, which resulted in his name being known all over Germany
- Luther's actions began the Reformation, a movement for religious reform that led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept the pope's authority
- Luther soon went beyond criticizing indulgences but wanted a full reform of the Church
- Luther's teachings rested on 3 main ideas:
- People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgiveness. The Church taught that faith and “good works” were needed for salvation
- All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible. Both the pope and Church traditions were false authorities
- All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests to interpret the Bible for them
- Church officials in Rome initially saw Luther as a rebellion monk in need of punishment by superiors, but later recognized him as a legitimate threat
- 1520: Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with ex-communication unless he took back his statements
- Luther didn't take his words back and instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope's decree into flames
- Leo excommunicated Luther
- Luther didn't take his words back and instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope's decree into flames
- Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, opposed Luther's teachings
- Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states
- 1521: He summoned Luther to the town of Worms to stand trial so he can take back his statements
- Luther refused
- A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms, declaring Luther an outlaw/heretic
- No one in the empire was to give Luther food/shelter/all of his books were to be burned
- Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the edict and sheltered Luther in one of his castles, where Luther translated the New Testament into German
- 1522: Luther returned to Wittenberg
- He discovered that many of his ideas were being put into practice
- Instead of continuing to seek reforms in the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers became a separate religious group (Lutherans)
- 1524: German peasants demanded an end to serfdom, inspired by reformers' talk of Christian freedom
- They went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning
- Luther did not agree with the revolt and urged the German princes to show the peasants no mercy
- The princes' army crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people, and peasants rejected Luther's religious leadership, feeling betrayed
- Many northern German princes supported Lutheranism
- While some princes genuinely shared Luther’s beliefs, others liked Luther’s ideas for selfish reasons
- They saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Church property/assert their independence from Charles V
- 1529: German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces against Luther's ideas
- Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest against that agreement
- The protesting princes came to be known as Protestants
- Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches
- Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes
- He defeated them in 1547, but failed to force them back to the Catholic church
- 1555: He ordered all German princes, both Protestant/Catholic, to assemble in Augsburg
- Peace of Augsburg: The German princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state
- When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he was a devout Catholic and was against Luther's ideas
- Political needs, however, soon tested his religious loyalty as he needed a male heir
- Henry's father became king after a long civil war and he feared that a similar war would start if he died w/o a son as heir
- He and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one living child (daughter, Mary), but no woman ever successfully claimed the English throne
- By 1527, Henry was convinced that Catherine would have no more children, so he wanted to divorce her/take a younger queen
- Church law didn't allow divorce, but the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry's marriage if proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place
- Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but was turned down as the pope didn't want to offend Catherine's nephew (Charles V)
- 1529: Henry called Parliament into session/asked to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England (The Reformation Parliament)
- 1533: Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn, who was in her 20s
- Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry's divorce
- 1534: Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy
- This called on people to take an oath recognizing divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's church
- The Act of Supremacy met some opposition
- Thomas More remained a devout Catholic despite criticizing the Church
- He refused to accept the act/take oath
- In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London
- 1553: More was found guilty of treason/executed
- After Anne Boleyn gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry’s favor/was charged with treason
- She was found guilty/beheaded in 1536
- Henry took in a third wife, Jane Seymour
- 1537: She gave birth to a son named Edward and dies from complications
- Henry married three more times, but these marriages did not produce children
- After Henry’s death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn, which created religious turmoil
- Edward became king at 9 years old
- He was guided by adult advisers since he was too young to rule alone
- These men were devout Protestants, and they introduced Protestant reforms to the English Church
- Almost constantly in ill health, Edward reigned for just six years
- 1553: Mary (daughter of Catherine) took throne
- She was a Catholic who returned the English Church to the rule of the pope
- Her efforts met with considerable resistance, and she had many Protestants executed
- Mary died in 1558 and Elizabeth (Boleyn's daughter) inherited the throne
- Elizabeth I wanted her kingdom to return to Protestantism
- 1559: Parliament followed Elizabeth’s wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth as its head
- This church was to be the only legal one in England
- Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics/moderate Protestants might both accept
- To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry
- They can deliver sermons in English, not Latin
- To please Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes
- Church services were revised to be somewhat more acceptable to Catholics
- Some Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching church reforms
- Some Catholics tried to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her w/ her cousin (Catholic Mary Queen of Scots)
- Elizabeth also faced threats from Philip II, Catholic king of Spain
- Elizabeth also faced money problems
- In the late 1500s, the English began to think about building an American empire as a new source of income
- Colonies strengthened England economically but didn't directly enrich the queen
CHAPTER 17.4: The Reformation Continues
- Religious reform in Switzerland was begun by Huldrych Zwingli
- He was influenced by the Christian humanism of Erasmus/the reforms of Luther
- 1520: Zwingli openly attacked abuses in the Catholic Church/called for a return to the more personal faith of early Christianity/wanted believers to have more control over the Church
- 1531: A war b/t Swiss Protestants/Catholics broke out, Zwingli dies during the fighting
- John Calvin was beginning to clarify his religious beliefs as a young law student
- Calvin grew up to have as much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther did/would begin to order to the faith Luther began
- 1536: Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion
- This book expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature/was a summary of Protestant theology
- He wrote that men/women are sinful by nature/argued that God chooses few people to save (the "elect")
- The doctrine that God chooses few people to save, the elect, is called predestination
- The religion based on Calvin's teachings is called Calvinism
- Calvin believed that the ideal government was a theocracy, a government-controlled by religious leaders
- 1541: Protestants in Geneva asked Calvin to lead their city
- When Calvin arrived in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city of about 20,000 people
- He/his followers ran the city according to strict rules:
- Everyone attended religion class
- No one wore bright clothing/played card games
- Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules/those who preached different doctrines might be burned at stake
- To many Protestants, Geneva was a model city
- He/his followers ran the city according to strict rules:
- John Knox visited Geneva/returned to Scotland in 1559/put Calvin's ideas to work
- Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called elders or presbyters
- Followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians
- 1560s: Protestant nobles led by Knox made Calvinism Scotland’s official religion/deposed their Catholic ruler (Mary Queen of Scots) in favor of her infant son James
- Swiss, Dutch, and French reformers adopted the Calvinist form of church organization
- One reason Calvin is considered so influential is that many Protestant churches today trace their roots to Calvin
- Over the years, many softened Calvin's strict teachings
- In France, Calvin’s followers were called Huguenots
- Hatred b/t Catholics/Huguenots frequently led to violence
- The most violent clash occurred in Paris on August 24, 1572 (Catholic feast of St. Bartholomew’s Day)
- At dawn, Catholic mobs began hunting for Protestants and murdering them, spreading to other cities/lasting 6 months
- Protestants taught that the Bible is the source of all religious truth and that people should read it to discover those truths
- Christians interpreted the Bible for themselves, so new Protestant groups formed over differences in belief
- Anabaptists: Believers in Christianity that only baptized those who were old enough to decide that they were Christians
- They also taught that church/state should be separate/refused to fight in wars/shared their possessions
- Anabaptists were viewed as radicals who threatened society/were persecuted by Catholics/Protestants
- They survived/became the forerunners of the Mennonites/Amish, which influenced later Quakers/Baptists, who split from the Anglican Church
- Many women played prominent roles in the Reformation
- Marguerite of Navarre protected John Calvin from being executed for his beliefs while he lived in France
- Other noblewomen also protected reformers
- The wives of some reformers also had influence
- Katherina Zell, married to Matthew Zell of Strasbourg, scolded a minister for speaking harshly of another reformer
- Katherine von Bora played a role as Luther's wife
- She also managed the family finances, fed all who visited their house, and supported her husband’s work
- She respected Luther’s position but argued with him about woman’s equal role in marriage
- As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization became more formal
- Male religious leaders limited women’s activities to the home/discouraged them from being leaders in the church
- Millions still were faithful to Catholicism
- Helping Catholics to remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself: the Catholic Reformation (once referred to as the Counter Reformation)
- Important leaders were reformers such as Ignatius of Loyola, who founded new religious orders and Paul III and Paul IV, who took actions to reform/renew the Church internally
- 1522: Ignatius began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study
- 1540, the pope created a religious order for Ignatius' followers called the Society of Jesus, members were called Jesuits
- Jesuits focused on 3 activities:
- They founded schools throughout Europe
- Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both classical studies/theology
- Convert non-Christians to Catholicism
- They sent out missionaries around the world
- Stop the spread of Protestantism
- They founded schools throughout Europe
- Paul III/Paul IV took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church
- Paul III:
- Directed a council of cardinals to investigate indulgence selling/other abuses
- Approved the Jesuit order
- Used the Inquisition to seek out heresy in papal territory
- Called a council of Church leaders to meet in Trent (northern Italy)
- Paul III:
- 1545-1563: at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops/cardinals agreed on several doctrines:
- The Church’s interpretation of the Bible was final/any Christian who substituted his/her own interpretation was a heretic
- Christians needed faith and good works for salvation/were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued
- The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life
- Indulgences were valid expressions of faith but the false selling of indulgences was banned
- Paul IV vigorously carried out the council's decrees:
- 1559: he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith (Index of Forbidden Books)
- These books were burned in bonfires
- 1559: he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith (Index of Forbidden Books)
- Protestant churches flourished and new denominations developed despite religious wars/persecutions
- The Roman Catholic Church itself became more unified as a result of the reforms started at the Council of Trent
- Both Catholics/Protestants gave more emphasis to the role of education in promoting their beliefs
- This led to the founding of parish schools and new colleges and universities throughout Europe
- Some women reformers had hoped to see the status of women in the church and society improve as a result of the Reformation, but it remained much of the same under Protestantism/Roman Catholicism
- As the Catholic Church’s moral and political authority declined, individual monarchs and states gained power
- This led to the development of modern nation-states
- 1600s: rulers of nation-states would seek more power for themselves/their countries through warfare, exploration, and expansion
CHAPTER 17 - European Renaissance and Reformation (1300-1600) - World History: Patterns of Interaction (Atlas by Rand McNally 2009)
CHAPTER 17 - European Renaissance and Reformation (1300-1600) - World History: Patterns of Interaction (Atlas by Rand McNally 2009)
CHAPTER 17.1: Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance
- The Renaissance - A term that means "rebirth", the movement that started in Italy which caused an explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought. It approximately lasted from 1300-1600
- The educated men and women of Italy hoped to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome
- In attempts to revive the past, the Renaissance created something entirely new
- The contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art, literature, new values (importance of the individual)
- The Renaissance eventually spread from northern Italy to the rest of Europe
- Italy had three advantages that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance:
- thriving cities
- a wealthy merchant class
- the classical heritage of Greece and Rome
- Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, had led to the growth of large city-states in northern Italy
- The region had many sizable towns, so northern Italy was urban while the rest of Europe was mostly rural
- Since cities are often places where people exchange ideas, they were an ideal breeding ground for an intellectual revolution
- 1300s: the bubonic plague struck the cities hard, killing up to 60% of the population
- The plague brought about economic changes:
- Because there were fewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages
- With few opportunities to expand business, merchants began to pursue other interests, such as art
- A wealthy merchant class developed in each Italian city-state
- Because city-states like Milan/Florence were relatively small, a high percentage of citizens could be intensely involved in political life
- Merchants dominated politics
- Unlike nobles, merchants did not inherit social rank
- They used their wits to succeed in business
- As a result, many successful merchants believed they deserved power/wealth because of their individual merit
- The belief in individual achievement became important during the Renaissance
- Since the late 1200s, Florence had a republican form of government
- During the Renaissance, Florence came under the rule of one powerful banking family, the Medici
- The Medici family bank had branch offices throughout Italy and in the major cities of Europe
- Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European of his time
- 1434: he won control of Florence's government
- He did not seek political office for himself, but influenced members of the ruling council by giving them loans
- He was Florence's dictator for 30 years
- Cosimo de Medici died in 1464, but his family continued to control Florence
- His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, came to power in 1469, ruling as a dictator but keeping the appearance of having an elected government
- Renaissance scholars looked down on the art and literature of the Middle Ages
- They wanted to return to the learning of the Greeks/Romans
- They achieved this in several ways:
- The artists/scholars of Italy drew inspiration from the ruins of Rome that surrounded them
- Western scholars studied ancient Latin manuscripts that had been preserved in monasteries
- Christian scholars in Constantinople fled to Rome w/ Greek manuscripts when the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453
- The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements
- Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching like medieval scholars, humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values
- Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions/popularized the study of subjects common to classical education (history, literature, philosophy), which resulted in these subjects being called the humanities
- In the Middle Ages, some people had demonstrated their piety by wearing rough clothing and eating plain foods
- However, humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life without offending God
- In Renaissance Italy, the wealthy enjoyed material luxuries, good music, and fine foods
- Most people remained devout Catholics
- The basic spirit of Renaissance society was secular, worldly rather than spiritual/concerned with the here and now
- Church leaders became more worldly with some living in beautiful mansions, throwing lavish banquets, and wearing expensive clothing
- Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified Rome and other cities by spending huge amounts of money for art
- They were patrons for the arts by financially supporting artists
- Renaissance merchants/wealthy families were also patrons of the arts
- The wealthy demonstrated their own importance through having their portraits painted/donating art to the city in public squares
- Renaissance writers introduced the idea that all educated people were expected to create art
- The ideal individual strove to master every area of study
- A man who excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal man.” Later ages called such people “Renaissance men”
- According to The Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione (taught how to become a Renaissance man), upper-class women also should know the classics and be charming
- They were not expected to seek fame, to inspire art but rarely to create it
- Upper-class Renaissance women were better educated than medieval women, but most had little influence in politics
- A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power
- She married the ruler of another city-state, Mantua
- She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and built a famous art collection
- She was also skilled in politics
- When her husband was taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won his release
- Dozens of artists worked in northern Italy. As the Renaissance advanced, artistic styles changed
- Medieval artists had used religious subjects to convey a spiritual ideal, but Renaissance artists often portrayed religious subjects in a realistic style copied from classical models
- Greek/Roman subjects also became popular
- Renaissance painters used the technique of perspective, which shows three dimensions on a flat surface
- Painters began to paint prominent citizens
- Artists such as Michelangelo Buonarroti used a realistic style when depicting the human body
- Donatello also made sculptures more realistic by carving natural postures/expressions that reveal personality
- He revived a classical form in his statue of David, a boy who, according to the Bible, became a great king (late-1460s)
- Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientist
- He studied how a muscle moves/how veins are arranged in a leaf
- He filled his notebooks with observations/sketches and then incorporated his findings into art
- Raphael Sanzio was younger than Michelangelo and Leonardo
- He learned by studying their works
- One of Raphael’s favorite subjects was the Madonna and child
- He was famous for his use of perspective
- In his greatest achievement, Raphael filled the walls of Pope Julius II’s library with paintings
- One of these, the School of Athens, conveys the classical influence on the Renaissance
- Raphael painted famous Renaissance figures, such as Michelangelo, Leonardo, and himself, as classical philosophers and their students
- Renaissance society generally restricted women’s roles, but few Italian women became notable painters
- Sofonisba Anguissola:
- Was the first woman artist to gain an international reputation
- She is known for her portraits of her sisters/prominent people such as King Philip II of Spain
- Artemisia Gentileschi:
- Trained with her painter father/helped with his work
- Painted pictures of strong, heroic women
- Sofonisba Anguissola:
- Renaissance writers produced works that reflected their time, but they also used techniques that writers rely on today
- Some followed the example of the medieval writer Dante
- He wrote in the vernacular, his native language (Italian), instead of Latin
- Renaissance writers wrote either for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects
- Writers of the Renaissance began trends that modern writers still follow
- Francesco Petrarch was one of the earliest/most influential humanists
- Some have referred to him as the father of Renaissance humanism
- He was also a poet that wrote both in Italian/Latin
- Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio is best known for the Decameron, a series of realistic, sometimes off-color stories
- The Prince (1513) by Niccolo Machiavelli examines the imperfect conduct of human beings
- It does so by taking the form of a political guidebook
- Machiavelli examines how a ruler can gain power and keep it in spite of his enemies
- In answering this question, he began with the idea that most people are selfish, fickle, and corrupt
- To succeed in a wicked world, a prince must be strong as a lion/shrewd as a fox
- Machiavelli argued that in the real world of power/politics a prince must sometimes mislead the people/lie to his opponents
- Women writers who gained fame during the Renaissance usually wrote about personal subjects, not politics
- Vittoria Colonna (1492-1547) was born of a noble family
- 1509: She married the Marquis of Pescara
- Colonna exchanged sonnets with Michelangelo/helped Castiglione publish The Courtier
- Her own poems express personal emotions
- Toward the end of the 15th century, Renaissance ideas began to spread north from Italy
CHAPTER 17.2: The Northern Renaissance
- By 1450, the population of northern Europe that declined b/c of the bubonic plague was beginning to grow again When the Hundred Years' War ended in 1453, many cities grew rapidly
- Urban merchants became wealthy enough to sponsor artists
- As wealth increased in other parts of Northern Europe, patronage of arts increased
- England and France were unified under strong monarchs
- These rulers often sponsored the arts by purchasing paintings/by supporting artists/writers
- As Renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with northern traditions
- As a result, the northern Renaissance developed its own character
- Artists were especially interested in realism
- The Renaissance ideal of human dignity inspired some northern humanists to develop plans for social reform based on Judeo-Christian values
- 1494: a French king claimed the throne of Naples in southern Italy and launched an invasion through northern Italy
- Many Italian artists/writers left for a safer life in Northern Europe/brought their style & techniques of the Italian Renaissance
- Northern European artists who studied in Italy carried Renaissance ideas back to their homelands
- German artist Albrecht Dürer traveled to Italy to study in 1494
- After returning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and engravings
- Many of his prints portray religious subjects, others portray classical myths or realistic landscapes
- The popularity of Dürer’s work helped to spread Renaissance styles
- Dürer’s emphasis upon realism influenced the work of Hans Holbein the Younger
- Holbein specialized in painting portraits that are almost photographic in detail
- He emigrated to England where he painted portraits of King Henry VIII/other members of the English royal family
- The support of wealthy merchant families in Flanders helped to make Flanders the artistic center of northern Europe
- The first great Flemish Renaissance painter was Jan van Eyck
- Van Eyck used recently developed oil-based paints to develop techniques that painters still use
- He was able to create a variety of subtle colors in clothing/jewels by applying layer upon layer
- Oil painting became popular and spread to Italy
- van Eyck's paintings display unusually realistic details and reveal the personality of his subjects, which later influenced artists in Northern Europe
- Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work of Pieter Bruegel the Elder
- Bruegel was also interested in realistic details and individual people
- He captured scenes from everyday peasant life such as weddings, dances, and harvests
- Italian humanists were very interested in reviving classical languages/classical texts
- When the Italian humanist ideas reached the north, people used them to examine the traditional teachings of the Church
- The northern humanists were critical of the failure of the Christian Church to inspire people to live a Christian life
- This criticism produced a new movement known as Christian humanism
- The focus of Christian humanism was the reform of society
- Education was of particular importance to humanists
- The humanists promoted the education of women and founded schools attended by both boys/girls
- The best known of the Christian humanists were Desiderius Erasmus of Holland/Thomas More of England, who were close friends
- 1509: Erasmus wrote his most famous work: The Praise of Folly
- It poked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priests
- Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules
- He thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible
- 1516: Thomas More wrote Utopia
- Utopia in Greek means "no place"
- In English it has come to mean an ideal place as depicted in More’s book
- The book is about an imaginary land where greed, corruption, and war have been weeded out
- More wrote in Latin and as he became more popular, they were translated in a variety of languages
- During this period the vast majority of Europeans were unable to read or write
- Those families who could afford formal schooling usually sent only their sons
- Christine de Pizan spoke out against this practice:
- She was highly educated for the time and was one of the 1st women to earn a living as a writer
- She wrote in French and produced many books, including short stories, biographies, novels, and manuals on military techniques
- She frequently wrote about the objections men had to educate women
- de Pizan was one of the first European writers to question the different treatment of boys/girls
- The mid-1500s is referred to as the Elizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I
- Elizabeth reigned from 1558-1603
- She was well educated and spoke French, Italian, Latin, and Greek
- She also wrote poetry and music
- Elizabeth did much to support the development of English art/literature
- The most famous writer of the Elizabethan Age was William Shakespeare
- Most people regard him as the greatest playwright of all time
- Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small town about 90 miles northwest of London
- By 1592 he was living in London and writing poems and plays, and soon he would be performing at the Globe Theater
- Shakespeare also revered the classics and drew on them for inspiration/plots
- The Chinese invented block printing, in which a printer carved words or letters on a wooden block, inked the block, and then used it to print on paper
- 1045: Bi Sheng invented movable type, or a separate piece of type for each character in the language
- The Chinese writing system contains thousands of different characters, so most Chinese printers found movable type impractical
- Even though it was impractical in China, it was the opposite for Europeans because their languages have a small number of letters in their alphabets
- 13th century: block-printed items reached Europe from China
- European printers began to use block printing to create whole pages to bind into books
- This process was too slow to satisfy Renaissance demand for knowledge/books
- Around 1440, Johann Gutenberg, a craftsman from Mainz, Germany, developed a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies in a new way
- This made it possibly to quickly/cheaply produce books
- Gutenberg printed a complete Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, in about 1455: the first full-sized book printed with movable type
- The printing press enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a single work
- For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buy them
- At first printers produced mainly religious work and later began to provide books on other subjects such as travel guides/medical manuals
- The European Renaissance was a period of great artistic and social change
- It marked a break with the medieval-period ideals focused around the Church
- The Renaissance belief in the dignity of the individual played a key role in the gradual rise of democratic ideas
- Summary of the changes in arts:
- Art drew on techniques and styles of classical Greece and Rome
- Paintings/sculptures portrayed individuals and nature in more realistic/lifelike ways
- Artists created works that were secular as well as those that were religious
- Writers began to use vernacular languages to express their ideas
- The arts praised individual achievement
- Summary of the changes in society:
- Printing changed society by making more information available/inexpensive enough for society at large
- Greater availability of books prompted an increased desire for learning/a rise in literacy throughout Europe
- Published accounts of new discoveries, maps, and charts led to further discoveries in a variety of fields
- Published legal proceedings made the laws clear so that people were more likely to understand their rights
- Christian humanists’ attempts to reform society changed views about how life should be lived
- People began to question political structures/religious practices
CHAPTER 17.3: Luther Leads the Reformation
- By 1500, additional forces weakened the Church
- Renaissance emphasis on the secular/individual challenged Church authority
- The printing press spread these secular ideas
- Some rulers also began to challenge the Church's political power
- Germany was divided into many competing states, so it was difficult for the pope/the emperor to impose central authority
- Northern merchants resented paying church taxes to Rome
- A new movement for religious reform began in Germany then spread rapidly to Europe
- Critics of the Church claimed that its leaders were corrupt
- The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts, spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars
- Pope Alexander VI admitted that he fathered several children/many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have time for spiritual duties
- The lower clergy also had problems; many priests/monks were so poorly educated that they could barely read/teach people
- Others broke their priestly vows by marrying/some drank to excess/gambled
- People came to expect higher standards of conduct from priests/church leaders
- Late 1300s to early 1400s: John Wycliffe of England/Jan Hus of Bohemia advocated for Church reform
- They denied that the pope had the right to worldly power
- They also taught that the Bible had more authority than Church leaders did
- 1500s: Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus/Thomas More also voiced their criticisms
- Many Europeans were reading religious works/forming their own opinions about the Church
- 1517: Martin Luther decided to take a public stand against friar Johann Tetzel
- Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome and was funding it through indulgences
- Indulgences: A pardon; it released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. They were not supposed to affect God's right to judge
- Tetzel gave people the impressed that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven
- In response, Luther wrote 95 Theses, or formal statements, attacking the "pardon merchants"
- October 31, 1517, he posted these statements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him
- Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a printer, which resulted in his name being known all over Germany
- Luther's actions began the Reformation, a movement for religious reform that led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept the pope's authority
- Luther soon went beyond criticizing indulgences but wanted a full reform of the Church
- Luther's teachings rested on 3 main ideas:
- People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgiveness. The Church taught that faith and “good works” were needed for salvation
- All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible. Both the pope and Church traditions were false authorities
- All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests to interpret the Bible for them
- Church officials in Rome initially saw Luther as a rebellion monk in need of punishment by superiors, but later recognized him as a legitimate threat
- 1520: Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with ex-communication unless he took back his statements
- Luther didn't take his words back and instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope's decree into flames
- Leo excommunicated Luther
- Luther didn't take his words back and instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope's decree into flames
- Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, opposed Luther's teachings
- Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states
- 1521: He summoned Luther to the town of Worms to stand trial so he can take back his statements
- Luther refused
- A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms, declaring Luther an outlaw/heretic
- No one in the empire was to give Luther food/shelter/all of his books were to be burned
- Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the edict and sheltered Luther in one of his castles, where Luther translated the New Testament into German
- 1522: Luther returned to Wittenberg
- He discovered that many of his ideas were being put into practice
- Instead of continuing to seek reforms in the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers became a separate religious group (Lutherans)
- 1524: German peasants demanded an end to serfdom, inspired by reformers' talk of Christian freedom
- They went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning
- Luther did not agree with the revolt and urged the German princes to show the peasants no mercy
- The princes' army crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people, and peasants rejected Luther's religious leadership, feeling betrayed
- Many northern German princes supported Lutheranism
- While some princes genuinely shared Luther’s beliefs, others liked Luther’s ideas for selfish reasons
- They saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Church property/assert their independence from Charles V
- 1529: German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces against Luther's ideas
- Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest against that agreement
- The protesting princes came to be known as Protestants
- Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches
- Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes
- He defeated them in 1547, but failed to force them back to the Catholic church
- 1555: He ordered all German princes, both Protestant/Catholic, to assemble in Augsburg
- Peace of Augsburg: The German princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state
- When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he was a devout Catholic and was against Luther's ideas
- Political needs, however, soon tested his religious loyalty as he needed a male heir
- Henry's father became king after a long civil war and he feared that a similar war would start if he died w/o a son as heir
- He and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one living child (daughter, Mary), but no woman ever successfully claimed the English throne
- By 1527, Henry was convinced that Catherine would have no more children, so he wanted to divorce her/take a younger queen
- Church law didn't allow divorce, but the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry's marriage if proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place
- Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but was turned down as the pope didn't want to offend Catherine's nephew (Charles V)
- 1529: Henry called Parliament into session/asked to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England (The Reformation Parliament)
- 1533: Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn, who was in her 20s
- Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry's divorce
- 1534: Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy
- This called on people to take an oath recognizing divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's church
- The Act of Supremacy met some opposition
- Thomas More remained a devout Catholic despite criticizing the Church
- He refused to accept the act/take oath
- In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London
- 1553: More was found guilty of treason/executed
- After Anne Boleyn gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry’s favor/was charged with treason
- She was found guilty/beheaded in 1536
- Henry took in a third wife, Jane Seymour
- 1537: She gave birth to a son named Edward and dies from complications
- Henry married three more times, but these marriages did not produce children
- After Henry’s death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn, which created religious turmoil
- Edward became king at 9 years old
- He was guided by adult advisers since he was too young to rule alone
- These men were devout Protestants, and they introduced Protestant reforms to the English Church
- Almost constantly in ill health, Edward reigned for just six years
- 1553: Mary (daughter of Catherine) took throne
- She was a Catholic who returned the English Church to the rule of the pope
- Her efforts met with considerable resistance, and she had many Protestants executed
- Mary died in 1558 and Elizabeth (Boleyn's daughter) inherited the throne
- Elizabeth I wanted her kingdom to return to Protestantism
- 1559: Parliament followed Elizabeth’s wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth as its head
- This church was to be the only legal one in England
- Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics/moderate Protestants might both accept
- To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry
- They can deliver sermons in English, not Latin
- To please Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes
- Church services were revised to be somewhat more acceptable to Catholics
- Some Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching church reforms
- Some Catholics tried to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her w/ her cousin (Catholic Mary Queen of Scots)
- Elizabeth also faced threats from Philip II, Catholic king of Spain
- Elizabeth also faced money problems
- In the late 1500s, the English began to think about building an American empire as a new source of income
- Colonies strengthened England economically but didn't directly enrich the queen
CHAPTER 17.4: The Reformation Continues
- Religious reform in Switzerland was begun by Huldrych Zwingli
- He was influenced by the Christian humanism of Erasmus/the reforms of Luther
- 1520: Zwingli openly attacked abuses in the Catholic Church/called for a return to the more personal faith of early Christianity/wanted believers to have more control over the Church
- 1531: A war b/t Swiss Protestants/Catholics broke out, Zwingli dies during the fighting
- John Calvin was beginning to clarify his religious beliefs as a young law student
- Calvin grew up to have as much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther did/would begin to order to the faith Luther began
- 1536: Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion
- This book expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature/was a summary of Protestant theology
- He wrote that men/women are sinful by nature/argued that God chooses few people to save (the "elect")
- The doctrine that God chooses few people to save, the elect, is called predestination
- The religion based on Calvin's teachings is called Calvinism
- Calvin believed that the ideal government was a theocracy, a government-controlled by religious leaders
- 1541: Protestants in Geneva asked Calvin to lead their city
- When Calvin arrived in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city of about 20,000 people
- He/his followers ran the city according to strict rules:
- Everyone attended religion class
- No one wore bright clothing/played card games
- Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules/those who preached different doctrines might be burned at stake
- To many Protestants, Geneva was a model city
- He/his followers ran the city according to strict rules:
- John Knox visited Geneva/returned to Scotland in 1559/put Calvin's ideas to work
- Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called elders or presbyters
- Followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians
- 1560s: Protestant nobles led by Knox made Calvinism Scotland’s official religion/deposed their Catholic ruler (Mary Queen of Scots) in favor of her infant son James
- Swiss, Dutch, and French reformers adopted the Calvinist form of church organization
- One reason Calvin is considered so influential is that many Protestant churches today trace their roots to Calvin
- Over the years, many softened Calvin's strict teachings
- In France, Calvin’s followers were called Huguenots
- Hatred b/t Catholics/Huguenots frequently led to violence
- The most violent clash occurred in Paris on August 24, 1572 (Catholic feast of St. Bartholomew’s Day)
- At dawn, Catholic mobs began hunting for Protestants and murdering them, spreading to other cities/lasting 6 months
- Protestants taught that the Bible is the source of all religious truth and that people should read it to discover those truths
- Christians interpreted the Bible for themselves, so new Protestant groups formed over differences in belief
- Anabaptists: Believers in Christianity that only baptized those who were old enough to decide that they were Christians
- They also taught that church/state should be separate/refused to fight in wars/shared their possessions
- Anabaptists were viewed as radicals who threatened society/were persecuted by Catholics/Protestants
- They survived/became the forerunners of the Mennonites/Amish, which influenced later Quakers/Baptists, who split from the Anglican Church
- Many women played prominent roles in the Reformation
- Marguerite of Navarre protected John Calvin from being executed for his beliefs while he lived in France
- Other noblewomen also protected reformers
- The wives of some reformers also had influence
- Katherina Zell, married to Matthew Zell of Strasbourg, scolded a minister for speaking harshly of another reformer
- Katherine von Bora played a role as Luther's wife
- She also managed the family finances, fed all who visited their house, and supported her husband’s work
- She respected Luther’s position but argued with him about woman’s equal role in marriage
- As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization became more formal
- Male religious leaders limited women’s activities to the home/discouraged them from being leaders in the church
- Millions still were faithful to Catholicism
- Helping Catholics to remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself: the Catholic Reformation (once referred to as the Counter Reformation)
- Important leaders were reformers such as Ignatius of Loyola, who founded new religious orders and Paul III and Paul IV, who took actions to reform/renew the Church internally
- 1522: Ignatius began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study
- 1540, the pope created a religious order for Ignatius' followers called the Society of Jesus, members were called Jesuits
- Jesuits focused on 3 activities:
- They founded schools throughout Europe
- Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both classical studies/theology
- Convert non-Christians to Catholicism
- They sent out missionaries around the world
- Stop the spread of Protestantism
- They founded schools throughout Europe
- Paul III/Paul IV took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church
- Paul III:
- Directed a council of cardinals to investigate indulgence selling/other abuses
- Approved the Jesuit order
- Used the Inquisition to seek out heresy in papal territory
- Called a council of Church leaders to meet in Trent (northern Italy)
- Paul III:
- 1545-1563: at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops/cardinals agreed on several doctrines:
- The Church’s interpretation of the Bible was final/any Christian who substituted his/her own interpretation was a heretic
- Christians needed faith and good works for salvation/were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued
- The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life
- Indulgences were valid expressions of faith but the false selling of indulgences was banned
- Paul IV vigorously carried out the council's decrees:
- 1559: he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith (Index of Forbidden Books)
- These books were burned in bonfires
- 1559: he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith (Index of Forbidden Books)
- Protestant churches flourished and new denominations developed despite religious wars/persecutions
- The Roman Catholic Church itself became more unified as a result of the reforms started at the Council of Trent
- Both Catholics/Protestants gave more emphasis to the role of education in promoting their beliefs
- This led to the founding of parish schools and new colleges and universities throughout Europe
- Some women reformers had hoped to see the status of women in the church and society improve as a result of the Reformation, but it remained much of the same under Protestantism/Roman Catholicism
- As the Catholic Church’s moral and political authority declined, individual monarchs and states gained power
- This led to the development of modern nation-states
- 1600s: rulers of nation-states would seek more power for themselves/their countries through warfare, exploration, and expansion