Unit 5: Cognition

analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

controls language reception (comprehension), left temporal lobe

controls language expression (speech), left frontal lobe

tendency to approach a problem with the mind-set of what has worked previously

compares our mind to a computer.

when our sensory receptors send impulses that are registered by neurons in our brain, similar to getting electronic information into our computer’s CPU (central processing unit) by keyboarding.

modeled human memory and thought processes using a flowchart that showed competing information filtered out early, as it is received by the senses and analyzed in the stages of memory.

is the mechanism by which we restrict information.

we use structural encoding of superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics, such as lines and curves, of the stimulus as it first comes in.

occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories (elaboration).

associated with deep processing, emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

describes three different memory systems characterized by time frames: sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.

short-term retention of sensory information, like sights, sounds, and smells, immediately following stimuli input

lasts for about 4 seconds, just long enough for us to hear a flow of information.

focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded into short-term memory.

is unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things.

a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously.

is encoding that requires our focused attention and conscious effort.

can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further.

can be a word rather than individual letters or a date rather than individual numbers.

working memory model involves much more than chunking, rehearsal, and passive storage of information.

is an active three-part memory system that temporarily holds information and consists of a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive.

also called declarative memory, is our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize. (requires effort)

are tasks that we perform automatically without thinking, such as tying our shoelaces or swimming.

is our memory to perform a planned action or remembering to perform that planned action.

is the relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass.

also called non-declarative memory, is our LTM for skills and procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled.

are systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes.

are more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others.

showed that we seem to scan a visual image of a picture (mental map) in our mind when asked questions.

are preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic operations and then get more and more complex as we gain additional information.

theory states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory.

have designed the neural network or parallel processing model that emphasizes the simultaneous processing of information, which occurs automatically and without our awareness.

computer models are based on neuronlike systems, which are biological rather than artificially contrived computer codes; they can learn, adapt to new situations, and deal with imprecise and incomplete information.

involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long-term memories.

a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event, is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and the hippocampus involved in emotional memories.

an inability to form new memories

involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as a blow to the head.

experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables.

way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten (saves time compared to

Ebbinghaus also found that if he continued to practice a list after memorizing it well, the information was more resistant to forgetting.

When we try to retrieve a long list of words, we usually recall the last words and the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle.

refers to better recall of the first items, thought to result from greater rehearsal Recency effect

can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, and mood or emotions.

is activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously.

spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions, facilitates remembering.

cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session.

or memory tricks when encoding information, these devices will help us retrieve concepts.

uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path.

requires us to first memorize a scheme.

Our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace

things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again.

may result from failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an inability to access information from LTM.

is a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again.

Learning some items may prevent retrieving others, especially when the items are similar.

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event.

Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information—putting words in someone else’s mouth—or remember something we see in the movies or on the Internet as actually having happened.

is a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to communicate our thoughts and feelings.

are the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes

Each language has a system of rules that determines how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate

The set of rules that regulate the order in which words can be combined into grammatically sensible sentences in a language

The set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

is the production of phonemes, not limited to the phonemes to which the baby is exposed.

one word—to convey meaning.

they begin to put together two-word sentences.

or overregularization in which children apply grammatical rules without making appropriate exceptions.

thinking about how you think

is a problem-solving strategy that involves a slow, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to many types of problems.

is a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

This approach involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that do not work.

involves reasoning from the specific to the general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is often correct but may be wrong if the members we have chosen do not fairly represent all of the members.

involves reasoning from the general to the specific.

is an inability to look at a problem from a fresh perspective, using a prior strategy that may not lead to success.

a failure to use an object in an unusual way.

estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind.

a mental shortcut by which a new situation is judged by how well it matches a stereotypical model or a particular prototype.

refers to the way a problem is posed.

is this tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point.

is a tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas.

is a tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited.

the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid.

is a tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome of the event.

is a tendency to underestimate the extent to which our judgments are erroneous.

is the ability to think about a problem or idea in new and unusual ways, to come up with unconventional solutions.

use problem-solving strategies directed toward one correct solution to a problem

produce many answers to the same question, characteristic of creativity.

generating lots of ideas without evaluating them.

are involved in test development in order to measure some construct or behavior that distinguishes people.

are ideas that help summarize a group of related phenomena or objects; they are hypothetical abstractions related to behavior and defined by groups of objects or events.

is a two-part test development procedure that first establishes test norms from the test results of the large representative sample that initially took the test and then ensures that the test is both administered and scored uniformly for all test takers.

are scores established from the test results of the representative sample, which are then used as a standard for assessing the performances of subsequent test takers

the same exam is administered to the same group on two different occasions, and the scores compared.

the score on one half of the test questions is correlated with the score on the other half of the questions to see if they are consistent.

the extent to which two or more scorers evaluate the responses in the same way.

is the extent to which an instrument accurately measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.

the test taker knows what he or she should do in response to questions or tasks on the test, and it is assumed that the test taker will do the best he or she can to succeed.