Studied by 1 person2 stages of development in children’s moral reasoning (with a transition period between them)
the outcome is more important than the intention
the intention is seen as a paramount
heternomous morality
the first stage
characteristics of children younger than 7 yeras old
in this stage, children regard rules and duties as law, and authorities’ punishments for noncompliance are always justified
Piaget suggests young children’s belief that rules are __________ are due to social and cognitive factors
unchangeable
Transition period
intearctions with peers lead them to take one another’s perspective and develop beliefs about fairness
autonomous morality
second stage
children are around 11-12 years
they no long accept blind obedience to authority as the basis of moral decisions
consider fairness and equality as the most important factors to consider when making rules
believe punishemnts should fit the crime, and adults are not always fair in delivering punishment
children typically progress from heteronomous morality to autonomous moral reasoning, and difference in the rates are due to numerous factors including:
cognitive maturity, opportunities for interactions with peers, and how authoritarian and punitive their parents are
Critique of Piaget’s theory
Piaget underestimated young children’s ability to appreciate the role of intentionality in morality
Kohlberg proposed that the development of moral reasoning proceeds through a specific series of stages that are _________ and each stage reflects a more advanced way of thinking than the one before it
discontinuous and hierarchal
3 levels of moral reasoning
preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
preconventional level
self-centered
stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation
stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation
Stage 1 (preconventional level)
a child’s moral actions are motivated by avoiding punishment
the child does not consider interests of others at all
stage 2 (preconventional level)
what is right is what is in the best interest of the child or invovles equal exchange (ex. you hurt me, so I hurt you)
conventional level
centered on social relationships
child is focused on compliance with social duties and laws
stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity orientation
stage 4: social system and conscience orientation
stage 3 (conventional level)
good behaviour is what is expected by those close to the person
being good is important and entails having good motives, showing concern, and maintaining good relationships with others
stage 4 (conventional level)
moral behaviour involves fulfilling one’s duties, upholding laws, and contributing to society or one’s group
the individual is motivated to keep the social system going and to avoid a breakdown in its functioning
postconventional/principled level
centered on ideals and a child at this level focuses on moral principles
stage 5: social contract or individual rights orientation
stage 6: universal ethical principles
stage 5 (preconventional level)
moral behaviour invovles upholding rules that are the best for the group, are impartial, or were mutually agrreed upon by the group
at this stage, one might reason that if society agrees the law is not benefiting everyone, it should be changed
stage 6 (preconventional level)
moral reasoning at this stage asserts that principles must be upheld in any society regardless of majority opinion, and hwen laws violate them, the individual should act in accordance with these universal principles rather than the law
moral behaviour here is commitment to self-chosen ethical prinicples that reflect universal prinicples like basic human rights and liberty
Critique of Kohlberg’s Theory
did not sufficiently differentiate between moral issues and issues of social convention
cultural differences in values were not taken into account
argues that once an individual has attained a new stage, they rarely reason at a lower one, but research has shown that children and adults reason at different levels on different occasions
fails to recognize the differences in which males and females reason morally based on how they are socialized
Social domain theory of moral development
growth in moral reasoning occurs through gradual change based on social interactions (implicit and explicit) with peers, adults, and parents
emphasizes the role of peers as a strong influence on children’s moral development
rgues that children need to understand the principles in three different domains of social knowledge - the moral domain, societal domain, and the personal domain - for children to successfuly negotiate their social worlds
moral domain
based on concepts of right & wrong, fairness, justice and individual rights. These concepts apply across concepts and surpass rules or authority.
societal domain
consists of the rules and conventions societies maintain order through
personal domain
pertains to actions where individual preferences are the main consideration with no right or wrongs
centered around development of autonomy and identity
even preschoolers want autonomy and older children strongly believe they should have autonomy regarding themselves at home and at school
parents usually feel they should have some authority over children’s personal choices, which is why parents and teenagers often battle in this domain, and parents often lose these battles
Cultural and socioeconomic similiaries and differences
what issues fall within the societal domain or personal domain differ across cultures
religious beliefs may affect what is considered a moral judgment or societal judgement
socioeconomic class can also influence the way children make such designations
conscience
internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual’s abilty to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture
restrains antisocial behaviour and destructive impulses & promotes compliance with rules and standards
can also promote prosocial behaviour by utilizing guilt when acting in less than acceptable ways
early development of conscience contributes to whether children come to accept the ____ of their parents and society
moral values
the nature of early parent-child disciplinary interactions sets the stage for children’s ___________
subsequent moral development
gentle discipline seems to be _______ to the development of conscience in fearless young children because it does not arouse attention
unrelated
children are more likely to take on parents’ moral values if their parents use disciplinary practices ______________
low in power and high in reasoning
it is suggested that humans may have an innate drive to prefer ______ than hindering ones
helping actions
the effects of parenting on children’s conscience can vary with the child’s _______ because genes affect children’s temperaments
genes
the origins of prosocial behaviour are rooted in the capacity to feel _____________
empathy and sympathy
in order for children to express empathy or sympathy, they must be able to _________ and they can begin to do this as early as 14 months
take the perspective of others
__________ is another form of prosocial behaviour that may be driven by sympathy and a child’s sense of fairness
cooperation
many have proposed that humans are __________ to be prosocial as collaboration in foraging for food and repelling enemies ensured survival
biologically predisposed
genetics also affect empathy, sympathy and prosocial behaviour through ________
temperament
_________ contribute to individual differences in empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behaviour
genetic factors
The primary environmental influence on children’s development of prosocial behaviour is socialization in the _______
family
How do parents socialize prosocial behaviour in children?
modeling and teaching prosocial behaviour
arranging opportunities for children to engage in prosocial behaviour
disciplining their children and eliciting prosocial behaviour from them
communicating and reinforcing cultural beliefs about the value of prosocial behaviour
children are especially likely to imitate the prosocial behaviour of adults they have a ______ relationship with
positive
Providing children with opportunities to engage in helpful activities can ______ their willingness to take on prosocial tasks at a later time
increase
______ older adolescents into service activities can sometimes backfire and undermine their motivation to help
Forcing
High levels of prosocial behaviour and sympathy in children tend to be associated with ___________________
constructive and supportive parenting, including authoritative parenting
A parenting style that involves physical punishment, threats, and an authoritarian approach tends to be associated with ___________
a lack of sympathy and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescents
discipline that includes ________ is particularly likely to foster children’s voluntary prosocial behaviour
reasoning
the combination of ____________ seems to be especially effective in fostering prosocial tendencies in children and adolescents
parental warmth and certain parenting practices
a study found that pairs that had the highest levels of ____________ were almost the most successful at resolving conflicts
moral reasoning
some school interventions have been effective at promoting prosocial behaviour in children, so __________ must contribute to prosocial development
environmental factors
primary prevention
targets all individuals in a particular setting to prevent the occurence of a problematic behaviour or condition
secondary prevention
helps individuals at risk for developing a problem or condition with the goal of preventing the problem or condition
tertiary intervention
a program designed to help individuals who already exhibit a problem or condition
antisocial behaviour
any behaviour described as disruptive, hostile, or aggressive that violates social norms and harms others
aggression
any behaviour aimed at physically or emotionally harming others
With the growth of language skills, physical aggression decreases in frequency, and ________ increases
verbal aggression
instrumental aggression
aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal
relational aggression
aggression intended to harm others by damaging peer relationships
there is an overall developmental trend towards less physical aggression, but serious acts of violence increase in _______ along with property offenses, and status offenses
mid-adolescence
Those who have ______________ continue to engage in troublesome behaviours and have some problems with their mental health and substance dependence until their mid 20s
low impulse control and poor regulation of aggression
Genetically influenced contributors to aggression
difficult temperament
antisoical behaviour is partially influenced by genetics
influence of heredity on proactive aggression
most are more likely to describe their own aggressive behaviour as a natural reaction to the behaviour of others, but when it comes to their ________, they don’t do this
helping behaviours
reactive aggression
emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one’s perception that other people’s motives are hostile
proactive aggression
unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire
Children who experience ____________ parenting are at a greater risk of becoming aggressive or antisocial than others
harsh or low-quality
many children whose parents use ________ physical punishment are prone to problem behaviours in early years, aggression in childhood, and criminality in adolescence and adulthood
harsh but non-abusive
parents who use abusive punishment provide _____________ behaviour for children to imitate
models of aggressive
the relation between ______ and children’s aggression can have a genetic component
punitive parenting
parental monitoring may be important as it reduces the likelihood that older children and adolescents will associate with _________ peers
deviant, antisocial
children who are frequently exposed to verbal and physical violence between their parents tend to be more ______________ than other children
antisocial and aggressive
children in low-income families tend to live in low-income neighbourhoods which have more violence and crime, and they also attend low-income schools which do not have the proper resources and also have _______
high violence
these neighbourhoods lack appropriate mentors, job opportunities, and constructive activities that engage children and youth and lead them away from _________
antisocial behaviour
aggressive children tend to socialize with other aggressive children and become more deliquent if their close friends are __________
aggressive
appears children’s ______________ to peer pressure to become involved in antisocial behaviour increases in the elementary school yeras, peaks at about 8th to 9th grade, and declines after
susceptibility
it is often a combination of genetic and environmental factors that predict children’s antisocial, aggressive behaviour and that some children are more _____ to the quality of parenting than others
sensitive
Gene variants can be related to higher risk for aggression in adverse situations like maltreatment and divorce but are not related to aggression in the _______ of the adverse conditions
absence
children with these problem behaviours can be treated with individual psychotherapy or a combination of ________________
psychotherapy and drug therapy
positive youth development
an approach to youth intervention that focuses on developing and nurturing strengths and assets rather than on correcting weaknesses and deficits
What does positive youth development emphasize?
competence, confidence, connection, character, caring, and compassion.
service learning
a strategy that integrates school-based instruction with community involvement in order to promote civic responsibility and enhance learning
Effects of participation in service learning
increase student’s empathy, awareness of larger social issues, ability to participate in a cooperative activity, and capacity for making responsible decisions.
Note
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