Chem12 CPT Review (PART ONE)

• ane

• non-polar

• van den waal forces

• low m and b point

• combustion reactions

• bromo, chloro, iodo, fluoro

• alphabetical order

• -ene

• double bonded carbons

• unsaturated

• -yne

• triple bonded

• unsaturated

• same # of atoms bonded, different formation

• cis- same side

  • not balanced

• trans- opposite side

  • balanced

• the attraction of H to other H atoms

• in reactions, the atoms being replaced must be closest to the most amount of H as possible

• -benzene

• phenyl-

• unsaturated

• ring shape

• 3 double bonds

• liquid @ room temp

• non-polar

• insoluble in water

• does not undergo addition reactions

• hydrocarbons lined up in a straight line

• not a pleasant odour

• burn with non-sooty flames

• some unsaturated, some saturated

• ring structure

• pleasant odour

• all unsaturated

• burn with sooty flames

• -ol

• contains hydroxyl group (OH)

• polar

• higher b points than alkanes

• soluble in water

• made through the hydration of alkenes

• bonded to 1 other carbon chain

• makes aldehydes

• bonded to 2 other C chains

• makes ketones

• bonded to 3 other C chains

• non-reactive (NR)

• -oxy//-ane

• 2 carbon chains stick together by an oxygen

• b points higher than alkanes, but lower than alcohols

• good solvent

  • c-o bond makes them polar

  • alkyl groups make them non-polar

• -thiol

• contains sulfhydryl group (SH)

• C double bonded to an O

• C=O

• -al

• carbonyl group @ the end of the C chain

• strong, pungent smell (like roses)

• polar & soluble in water

• b points are high

• [O] to make carboxylic acids

• -one

• carbonyl group in the middle of the chain

• strong, pungent smell (like roses)

• polar & soluble in water

• b points are high

• -oic acid

• C double bonded to an O, & same C bonded to an OH

• very polar

• H bonding

• m point is high

• made from the [O] of an aldehyde

• -oate

• fruity/floral smell

• 2 chains being bonded by an O and C

  • C has a double-bonded O on the other side

• less polar and soluble than carboxylic acids

• b points are lower

• made from alcohols and carboxylic acids

• -amine

• N present to connect chains

• strong, fishy smell

• polar

• not very soluble

• higher b and m points

• N attached to 1 alkyl group

• made from an alkyl halide reacting with ammonia

• N attached to 2 alkyl groups

• made from a primary amine reacting with an alkyl group

• N attached to 3 alkyl groups

• made form a secondary amine reacting with an alkyl halide

• -amide

• 2 chains joined by a N bonded to a C which has a double bonded O

  • N-C=O

• mildly soluble in water

• made from:

  • carboxylic acid reacting with ammonia

  • OR a primary amine reacting with a secondary amine

• polymer: large molecule that is built from monomers

• monomers: one of the repeating units that make up a polymer

• copolymers: different types of monomers combined to form a polymer chain

  • can be joined through addition or condensation

• natural polymers: polymers made entirely of living things (ex. glucose, DNA, proteins)

• synthetic polymers: made artificially to have desirable properties, or to serve a specific purpose (ex. polyester)

  • they undergo either addition or condensation reactions to perform certain actions

• peptide bonds- produced when condensation reactions between amino acids build protein polymers

• protein structure- the sequence of amino acids in a protein

• nucleic acid- store and transmit genetic information

• nucleotides- monomers of nucleic acid

  • 5 carbon sugar

  • nitrogen-containing organic base

  • phosphoric acid molecule

• the result of a reaction between monomers of an unsaturated hydrocarbon

• plastics - synthetic polymer that can be molded into shape and will retain that shape when cooled

  • Low Density Polyethylene- branched molecule, synthesized by adding a small amount of compounds that have multiple double bonds

  • High Density Polyethylene- blow moulded products, mostly straight chain, can pack more tightly

• polymer made through many condensation reactions

• ester linkages- a polymer formed by a series of esterification reactions, a copolymer

• amide linkages- formed from a reaction between a carboxylic acid and amine

• substitution

  • alkane + H(cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halides

• alkene + 2H₂ → alkane

• alkene + H₂O → alcohol

• alkene + H(cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halide +H₂O

• 1° alcohol + [O] → aldehyde

• 2° alcohol + [O} → ketone

• 3° alcohol + [O] → NR

• alcohol + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

• alcohol + (cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halide + H₂O

• alcohol →heat→ ether + H₂O

• aldehyde + [O] → carboxylic acid

• aldehyde + 2H₂ → alcohol

• carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + H₂O

• carboxylic acid + [O] → amide

• carboxylic acid + amine → amide

• ester + acid/base → carboxylic acid + alcohol

• alkyl halide + ammonia → 1° amine

• alkyl halide + 1° amine → 2° amine

• alkyl halide +2° amine → 3° amine

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• around 400 BC

• atom was founded by hypothesizing that matter cut into smaller and smaller pieces would eventually become indivisible

• reintroduced the atom

• the billiard ball

  • elements consists of atoms

  • atoms cannot be created destroyed or divided

  • atoms of the same element have identical size, mass, and properties (which is FALSE)

• discovered the electron (negatively charged subatomic particle)

• plum pudding model

• cathode ray tube

  • vacuum-like tube that spits out particles to measure the deflection of the beam of light

• concluded the atom is a negatively charged electron inside a positively charged “shell”

• mass of the electron

• calculated the mass by using charged oil in a can and saw how fast or slow the oil would drop from level to level

• radioactivity

• uranium is capable of emitting energy, particles, or waves that travel through space

• 3 types of radioactive emissions

  • alpha particles (He)

  • beta particles (e⁻)

  • gamma rays

• the nucleus

• gold foil experiment

  • alpha particles were fired at a thin gold sheet to measure how often they would deflect (1 in 8000)

• Rutherford concluded

  • the atom has a nucleus: a dense, positively charged center made of proteins

  • electrons orbited the nucleus

• the neutron

• when calculating the nass of the nuclei, Chadwick notices there was an imbalance and discovered neutral particles to make-up for the imbalance

  • positive nucleus containing neutral particles called neutrons

• light is a wave

• refraction, reflection, and defraction

• electromagnetic spectrum

  • made of magnetic and electric fields

• photoelectric effect

• the colour of light determines the energy of electrons emitted

• shortwave electromagnetic radiation

• light behaves as a particle

• blackbody: perfectly black object that does not reflect any light & emits various forms of light as a result of very high temps.

• light is emitted in bursts of discrete quantities of energy, rather than continuous flow

  • quantum energy/quanta

• photons

  • EM radiation is a stream of particles called photons (units/packets of light energy)

• quantum theory

  • the energy of a photon has to be above the threshold frequency, otherwise, no electrons are ejected

• spectroscopy → invented by Bunsen & Kirchoff

  • used to study light passing through a plate and prism to create different coloured lights and emissions

• dark light spectrum

  • start with white light & pass through a gas & analyze what’s left

  • absorption spectrum

  • lower to higher level

• bright line spectrum

  • when a gas is exposed to an electric current then passed through a prism to emit light

  • emission spectrum

  • higher to lower level

• gives a reasonable explanation for Mendeleev’s periodic law; periods result from the filling of electron energy levels

• the max. # of electrons in each energy level corresponds to the elements in each period of the periodic table (2,8,8,18)

• it explained the line spectrum of H

• could not predict the spectra of ions of more than 1 electron

• An electron in an atom revolves in certain stable orbits without emitting radiant energy.

• Each atom has certain definite stable orbits.

  • Electrons can exist in these orbits.

• Each possible orbit has definite total energy.

• electrons have wave-like properties

  • if light behaves like a particle, a particle should also be able to behave like a wave

• used math and stats to combine De Brogilie’s and Einstein’s theories of light

• energy levels

• everything has wavelengths

• it is impossible to know the exact position/location & speed of any electron @ any given time

• orbitals- the region around the nucleus when an e⁻ has a very high probability of being found

  • 2 electrons

  • 3D

  • distance from the nucleus varies

  • no set paths

• orbits

  • 2n² electrons

  • 2D

  • distance from the nucleus is fixed

  • path is elliptical or circular

• principal, n

  • describes the size & energy of an orbital

  • differences between energy levels are not =

• secondary, l

  • describes the shapes of sub shells of the main energy level

  • values of l describe the shape and energy of an atomic orbital

  • s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3, g=4

• magnetic, m

  • describes the orientation in space relative to other orbitals

  • m₁ is equal to the # of orbitals

  • +l or -l are integral values (including 0)

• spin, ms

  • describes the spin

  • possesses only 2 values; either +1/2 or -1/2

• no 2 electrons have the same 4 quantum numbers

• each has 2 arrows (+ and -)

• an energy level must be filled before moving on to the next higher level

• each orbital at the same energy level must have 1 electron in ut before any orbital can contain 2 electrons

• the electrostatic attraction between opposing charged ions

• isoelectric- have the same # of electrons (Xe, I⁻, Cs⁺)

• the attraction of electrons from 1 atom to the nucleus of the other

• covalent bond occurs when atoms share electrons

• atoms and ions are stable if they have a stable octet of electrons (or in pairs)

  • duet rule- a H atom from a stable configuration when it shares 2 electrons in order to obtain a full valance shell

  • octet rule- many atoms are more stable when they are surrounded by 8 e⁻ to achieve a full valance shell

  • lone pair- a pair of e⁻ that is not involved in bonding

• valance shell electron pair repulsion theory

• based on the distance of electeons and their pull & push factors

• AX₂, AX₁, AX₂E₃

• equal repulsion to pull

• AX₃

• 3 bonds, no lone pairs

• AX₄

• 4 bonds

• equal forces

• AX₃E₁

• 3 bonds, 1 lone pair

• AX₂E₂

• 2 bonds, 2 lone pairs

• AX₄E₁

• 4 bonds, 1 lone pair

• AX₃E₂

• 3 bonds, 2 lone pairs

• AX₅E₁

• 5 bonds, 1 lone pair

• AX₄E₂

• 4 bonds, 2 lone pairs

• AX₆

• 6 bonds, no lone pairs

• intramolecular- the chemical bond within a compound

• intermolecular- the force that causes 1 molecule to be attracted to another molecule

• van der waal forces- types of intermolecular forces

  • dipole dipole, H bonding, london dispersion

• polar molecules

• positive end and negative end line up to electrostatically join

• strong dipole dipole

• H covalently bonded to N, O, or F

  • increases b points

  • important in biology for life to continue

• non-polar molecules

• increases b points

1. m points

2. b points

3. viscosity

4. solubility

5. binding affinity

6. surface tension

7. adhesion

8. hydrophobicity

9. elasticity

• ionic

• metallic

• molecular

• covalent network

• metal + non-metal

  • hard and brittle

  • dissolves in water

  • high m point

• v strong bonds

• closely packed metal atoms connected by electrostatic interactions and free-moving electrons

  • shiny/sheen

  • good conductor of heat and electricity

  • malleable

  • hard

• not all the same properties

• explains why metallic solids dont always have the same properties

• the valance electrons of the metal move around freely, which explains why properties are always different

• complex

• intermolecular forces determine its structure and properties (london dispersion)

  • low m points

  • less hard

  • does not conduct electricity well

• interwoven bonds and structure (v strong bonds)

• electrons do not move freely

  • v high melting points

  • v hard

  • not v good conductors of electricity

• carbon, diamonds, graphite, buckyball, carbon nanotubes, quartz

• a substance that conducts a slight electric current @ room temp but has increasing conductivity @ higher temps

• full valance shell

• non- conductors usually

  • n-type: conductivity significantly increases when dipped in arsenic (e⁻ get excited and jump a shell)

  • p-type: conductivity significantly increases when dipped in boron (valance e⁻ are lost)