APES Unit 1-5 Final Exam Review

predator-prey relationship

organism (predator) that eats another organism (prey)

symbiosis

close/long-term interaction between two species in an ecosystem

three types of symbiosis

mutualism (++), commensalism (+o), parasitism (+-)

competition

within or between species in an ecosystem where there are limited resources

resource partitioning

using resources in different ways/time in order to reduce the negative impact of competition of survival

food web

depicts the flow of energy and nutrients in two or more food chains

positive and negative feedback loops

play a role in food webs, when one species is removed from or added to a specific food web which can affected.

inflow of high quality energy

helps maintain structure and function of transferring matter between the environment and organisms

energy flow

sun —> producer which then flows to higher trophic levels

primary productivity

rate where solar energy is converted into organic compounds (photosynthesis)

gross primary productivity (GPP)

total rate of photosynthesis in a given area

net primary productivity (NPP)

rate of energy storage by photo-synthesizers in a given area; after subtracting the energy lost

NPP equation

GPP-R=NPP

10% rule

only about 10% of the energy is passed on from one trophic level to another

law of thermodynamics

energy levels are the same but some usable energy is converted into heat

carbon sink

the ocean floor (largest sink), atmosphere, organisms, fossil fuels, sediments, places where carbon gets stored

short-term carbon cycle

photosynthesis and respiration in animals/plants

long term carbon cycle

burial of organic life stores carbon for millions of year and is used for fossil fuels

atmosphere

largest reservoir of nitrogen cycle

nitrogen fixation

N2 in the air gets turned into usable nitrogen NH3 (ammonia) converted by bacteria

assimilation

plants take up nitrogen and make use of it

rock and sediments

major reservoirs of phosphorus

limiting growth factor

found in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems since there is no atmospheric form of P

oceans

primary reservoir of water in the cycle, ice caps and groundwater acting as smaller ones

five examples of terrestrial biomes

taiga, temperate rain-forests, tropical rain-forests, temperate grassland, desert

distribution of non-mineral natural resources like water and trees for lumber vary in terrestrial biomes because of

climate, geography, latitude, altitude, nutrient availability, and soil

freshwater biomes include

streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes, which are vital for drinking water

marine biomes inlude

oceans, coral reefs, marshland, and estuaries

function of algae

supply large portion of Earth’s oxygen and takes in CO2 from the atmosphere

distribution of non-mineral natural resources like fish species vary in aquatic biomes because of

salinity, depth, turbidity (murkiness), nutrient availability, and temperature

biodiversity

genetic, species, and habitat diversity in an ecosystem

environment stressors

natural or man-made events that disrupt the environment, genetically diverse populations have better response to this

population bottleneck

individuals in a population that are cut-off from each other (not many in the population) causing loss of genetic diversity

specialist species

thrive in narrow environment conditions or has a limited diet; vulnerable to death

generalist species

thrive in a wide range of environment conditions and make use of many different resources; more resistance

species richness

number of different species in an ecosystem (species evenness is relative abundance)

island biogeography

study of ecological relationships and distribution of organisms on islands

effect of islands on species

island species have evolved to be specialist v. generalists due to competition and limited resources. specialist species are more jeopardized when invasive/generalist species are introduced.

k-selected species

large, have few offspring, live in stable environments, mature slow, long life span, reproduce more, high competition

r-selected species

small, have many offspring, mature fast, short life span, reproduce once, low competition

biotic potential

maximum reproductive rate of population in ideal condition

ecological tolerance

range of conditions like temperature, salinity, flow rate, and sunlight that an organism can endure before injury or death

provisioning services

provide humans with necessities indirect value; T.O.C (energy, timber, medicine)

regulating services

natural indirect services that help save money (flood protection, pollination)

cultural services

celebrate and appreciate ecosystem values (heritage sites, education)

supporting services

provide an ecosystem for all other services; most important (nutrient recycling, primary production)

difference between periodic and episodic phenomenons

periodic repeats at regular, predictable intervals and episodic are infrequent and unexpected

primary succession

soil is made by mosses/lichens eroding rocks; takes a long time

secondary succession

soil already exists and the climax community is a rich forest that’s reached sooner

keystone species

their activities have a significant role in determining community structure and resilience

indicator species

their presence help indicate certain characteristics or quality of an ecosystem

pioneer species

first species to move in an unoccupied habitat during succession

ecological footprints

compare resource demand and waste production required for an individual or a society

sustainability

use of resources without depletion of the resources for future generations

environment indicators

biological diversity, food production, average global surface temperatures and CO2 concentrations, human population, and resource depletion

sustainable yield

the amount of renewable resource that can be taken without reducing available supply

overshoot

population exceeding the carrying capacity, causing resource depletion

dieback

major ecological effect of population overshoot due to the lack of available resources leading to famine, disease, and conflict

type 1 survivor-ship

low birth death rate and die until old age (k-selected species)

type 2 survivor-ship

constant death throughout their lifetime (k-selected species)

type 3 survivor-ship

have many offspring with high birth death rate, those who survive live for longer (r-selected species)

demographic transitition

transition from high to lower birth and death rates in a country going from pre-industrial to industrial

describe demographic transition

stage 1 (pre-industrial) → high births and deaths; ZPG

stage 2 →high births and low deaths (medicine introduced)

stage 3 → low birth and stable deaths (contraception and education for women)

stage 4 (industrialization) →stable births and death; ZPG

stage 5 →birth rates fall below death rates; population declines

affect the human population growth and decline

birth rates, infant mortality rates, death rates, family planning, nutrition, education, marriage

density-independent factors

abiotic factors like major storms, fires, heat waves, and droughts

density-dependent factors

clean water/air, food availability, disease transmission, territory size

rule of 70

dividing the number 70 by the percentage population growth rate shows population doubling time

example: 70/2% = 35 years

lithopshere

solid layer of earth including outer crust and soil portion of mantle

convergent boundaries

plates moving towards and colliding together

two ocean plates collide

subduction (island arcs)

two continental plates collide

no subduction (mountains)

ocean and continental collide

subduction

divergent boundaries

plates moving away from each other causing rift valleys, seafloor spreading, volcanoes (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

transform boundaries

plates that slide past one another causing shallow earthquakes, fault zones, and long ridges (San Andreas Fault)

earthquake formations

plates rupture along a fault causing a sudden snap and released stored energy

convergent →plates collide and pressure builds

divergent →new crust created and other crust is pushed apart and cracks

difference between soil horizons and soil profile

soil horizons are individual layers and soil profile shows all layers

layers of soil

O layer: organic matter in stages of decomposition

A layer (topsoil): overlying organic material mixed with underlying minerals

E layer (leached): depleted soluble nutrients

B layer (subsoil): accumulation of metals and nutrients

C layer - least weathered portion with rock fragments and little organic material

R layer - bedrock

particle size

affect the porosity, permeability, and fertility of the soil

big particle sizes = easier plant growth (hold less water)

small particles = harder growth since they’re compacted close together (hold more water)

soil is made of up 3 main things

clay, silt, sand

watershed

area of land that drains all the streams and precipitation to a common outlet like a river, lake, or ocean

characteristics of watersheds

area, length, slope, soil, vegetation, amount & types, and divides with adjacent watersheds

rain shadow

dry area of land since high elevations block rain from reaching the land (leeward side of a mountain)

layers of the atmosphere

troposphere → weather occurs, most pressure

stratosphere →ozone layer, jet stream

mesosphere →coldest layer, meteor burn-up

thermosphere →hottest layer, absorb sun radiation

exosphere →satellites, hydrogen and helium in here

north pole pointed towards the sun

summer in N. hemisphere

winter in S. hemisphere

north pole pointed away from the sun

winter in N. hemisphere

summer in S. hemisphere

Coriolis effect

because the earth is spinning, winds are deflecting or changing direction even though they are traveling in a straight line

wind deflects →right in N. hemisphere and deflect ←left in the S. hemisphere

convection cells

warm air rising and cool air sinking

three types of convection cells

hadley cell (0-30 degrees N and S) -

ferrell cell (30-60 degrees N and S)

polar cell (60-90 degrees N and S)

el niño

temporary warming of the Pacific ocean current causes wind trades to weaken/reverse ( E → W)

Americas - less upwelling, increased rain and temperature, less food for predators and humans

Asia/Australia - dry conditions, drought/fires

la niña

extreme version of normal conditions where trade winds going E → W speed up and push warm water even further away; hurricanes decrease in Pacific and increases in Atlantic due to warm temperatures

Americas - increases upwellings, cool surface water temperatures

Asia/Australia - more rain, monsoons, flooding

upwellings

warm surface water is replaced with cold, nutrient water from the deep, supporting organisms and leads to an increase in fish population. ONLY HAPPENS ON THE WEST COAST OF THE AMERICAS

tragedy of the commons

shared, limited resources that can become depleted if not regulated; usually in public areas

the green revolution

increased food production and crop yield due to agricultural introduction to mechanization, GMO’s, fertilization, irrigation, and pesticides

pros and cons of green revolution

mechanization: increased crop yield but causes erosion/CO2 emission from fossil fuels

fertilizers: easy to use/cheap but causes eutrophication and contaminates waterways

pesticides: high crop yields/more food less land but kills non-target species and pesticide treadmill

irrigation: good crop yield but causes water-logging and soil salinzation

GMO’s - pest resistance/conserve energy and water but decreased biodiversity and affects animal proteins, food allergies

types of irrigation

furrow - filling ditches next to crop rows with water (low cost BUT water lost to evaporation/run-off

flood - flooding fields with water (waterlogging can happen)

spray - water is sprayed from nozzles (more efficient but evaporation/run-off loss + more expensive)

drip - pipes laid on the ground release small amounts of water to plant roots (most efficient since water is not evaporated but most expensive)

effects of irrigation

waterlogging → raises the table of groundwater and limits plants ability to absorb oxygen through their roots

salinization → salt stays in the soil after water evaporation causing the soil to become toxic/acidic

aquifers - become severely depleted due to over-use of water

pesticide treadmill

pests develop a resistance to pesticides causing an increase in pesticide application to crops; farmers repeat this process over and over again until no avail

concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO)

feedlots for livestock that are later consumed for food

are inexpensive BUT increase organic waste, are crowded, and are fed grain diets that are not sustainable

free-range grazing

animals graze on grass in their life-cycle and are free from antibiotics and chemical uses

but cost of the meat is increased and overgrazing causes erosion due to loss of vegetation

overfishing

demand for fish exceeds to time needed for fish to re-populate causing less biodiversity and scarcity in fish populations