Information Processing Model
brain must receive info in a usable form in order to maintain it in consciousness
manipulation and rehearsal of info so it can be stored
retrieval of info, recalling stored memories
Rehearsal
preparation for a forthcoming event or confrontation that is anticipated with some level of discomfort or anxiety
Retrieval
the process of recovering or locating information stored in memory
Parallel Processing
interpreting numerous events and stimuli at the same time
Dual Processing
aka parallel processing
Sensory Memory
we process everything we sense, an activity that takes less than a second to several seconds
Iconic Memory
fleeting visual images in sensory memory
leaves our brains unless we pay attention to it
if we don’t it is lost.
Echoic Memory
auditory signals in sensory memory
leaves our brains unless we pay attention to it
if we don’t it is lost.
Short-Term Memory
small amounts of info stored up to 30 seconds or so
sensitive and vulnerable to interruptions or interference
Long-Term Memory
final stage; memory that can store info indefinitely based on its relative importance to the individual
stimuli must be encoded for storage, or rehearsed enough
Encoding
taking stimuli from the environment and converting it into a form or construct that the brain can understand and use
takes place by comparing new info to info previously learned.
if stimuli is not encoded it is forgotten
Episodic Memories
stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall and tell to someone else
Semantic Memories
impersonal memories that are not drawn from personal experience but from everyday, common kinds of knowledge ex: names of colors, states, etc
Procedural Memories
memories of how to do something ex: riding a bike, baking, other learned stuff
Automatic Processing
info processing of much repeated or well-learned activities that occurs without us being aware of it
Implicit Memories (Nondeclarative)
we retain without conscious effort and often without our awareness
unconsciously retrieved
you can SHOW others
Priming
using cues to activate hidden memories
how we retrieve implicit memories from our long-term memories
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort ;make an effort to learn it
Explicit Memories (Declarative)
recalled clearly in detail; facts and experiences we consciously know and can declare
you can TELL others
Working Memory
short term memory; limitation to info it can retain and limited time frame in which the info can be recalled (about 10-20 seconds)
Chunking
combining or grouping bits of related info
Maintenance Rehearsal
repeating info to prolong its presence in short term memory
can increase the length time info can be stored in short term memory to about 30 secs
Shallow Processing
trying to learn ideas on superficial level, only memorizing
tend to forget things quickly using this
Elaborative Rehearsal
linking new info with existing memories and knowledge in long term memory
transfers short term memory to long term memory
remember more effectively
Deep Processing
involves elaborative rehearsal along with a meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned
Recognition
correct identification of previously learned material
Recall
direct retrieval of facts or info
State-Dependent Memories
memory retrieval is more efficient when individuals are in the same state of consciousness, such as under the influence or a mind-altering substance, as they were when the memory was formed
Mood-Dependent Memories
recall of info that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was required
happens only when the moods are genuine and authentic, not temporary
Tip-of-the-Tongue
feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable
Serial Position Effect
occurs when people recall the first and last items in a list more easily than the middle
Primacy Effect
tendency of the first item to be remembered best
Recency Effect
tendency to remember the most recently presented items best
Eidetic Memory
when a person (usually child) has visual images clear enough to be retained for at least 30 seconds and realistic in their vividness
like photographic memory
Long-Term Potentiation
a lasting strengthening of the synapses that increases neurotransmissions
biological basis for learning and memory in mammals
occurs in hippocampus
Hippocampus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
Amnesia
the loss of memories
Retrograde Amnesia
forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma
Anterograde Amnesia
-occurs when the hippocampus is damaged, resulting in the inability to “create” long-term memories and forcing a person to always live in the present
Forgetting Curve
exponential loss of info shortly after learning it
Ebbinghaus: people forget at a predictable rate
Interference
there are two ways to interfere with the creation of new memories (retro and proactive)
Retroactive Interference
new memories impair retrieval of older memories
Proactive Interference
prior learning inhibits or interferes with the recall of later learning
Flashbulb Memories
vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance
Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem because it explores every possibility
Cognition
mental activity associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering, and communicating
Concepts
mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, people
Convergent Thinking
a question invites only one correct answer
limits creativity
Creativity
ability to produce novel and valuable ideas within any discipline, including art, music, architecture math, science, and engineering
Critical Thinking
going beyond acquiring new info using concepts, prototypes, and other cognitive activities and develop opinions and beliefs about that info
Divergent Thinking
a question or problem can have several or many possible responses
Heuristics
”rules of thumb”
allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently, but the shortcuts involved may lead to incorrect outcomes
Insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, such as suddenly seeing a cause and effect relationship
Metacognition
active control and awareness of our own thinking
when we think about our thinking
Prototype
mental image of the best example of a specific concept or category
Anchoring Effect
a cognitive bias favoring the first info offered
Availability Heuristic
estimates the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
problematic heuristic
Belief Perseverance
the thinking flaw of clinging to our initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Functional Fixedness
a tendency to only think of an object's most common use
Mental Set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct and to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
Representativeness Heuristic
we judge how something represents, or matches, certain prototypes we have
Language Acquisition Device
all people have an inborn capacity to learn the language with which they are raised. Healthy children can learn whatever language
Chomsky
Linguistic Determinism
language one uses determines the way one thinks and one’s view of the world
Whorf
Linguistic Relativity
hypothesis that assumes that language and though have INFLUENCES on each other= language one speaks influences how one thinks, and vice versa
language does not determine thought
Morpheme
smallest unit that carries some meaning
Phoneme
smallest distinctive sound unit in a language
Semantics
the study of meaning in language
Syntax
determines the rules for combining or arranging words into grammatically sensible sentences
Telegraphic Speech
two word stage of language development; child uses mostly noun and verbs
Achievement Tests
identify what individuals know and test their skill levels in different areas
Aptitude Tests
measure ability in certain areas, such as numerical, verbal, or mechanical reasoning
strength in areas can indicate one’s potential professional direction
Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale
provided children with a mental age, allowing the assessor to identify if children were ahead of or behind their peers
Alfred Binet and T Simon
Crystallized Intelligence
represents ones accumulated knowledge.
increases with age as one’s accumulated knowledge and experiences expand
Factor Analysis
analyzes correlations between different measures
Fluid Intelligence
demonstrated by recognizing patterns, seeing relationships, and using logic to solve novel problems without a connection to past knowledge
decreases with age
Heritability
genetic basis
Intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Intelligence Quotient
mental age (given by exam) divided by the chronological age (actual age of child) multiplied by 100
shows if children were ahead or behind peers
William Stern
Mental Age
Primary Mental Abilities
Psychometric Psychologists
focus on measuring and assessing a number of traits; skilled mathematicians
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
test intelligence of in a wider population, American audience of varied ages and a broader range of subjects
Lewis Terman
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
(adult and children) - a performance scale that measured perceptual organization and processing speed. Abstract tasks such as block design, pic completion, etc
administered for special ed class
David Wechsler
verbal
Norm Referenced Tests
one that allows you to be compared to this sample group of test takers and determine your relative position in the testing group
Standardization
procedures by which the exam is created, administered, and scored
factor regarding timing, directions, settings, seating, and monitoring should be the same for all test takers
Stereotype Threat
when groups is told beforehand that they generally perform worse, they will. If not, they will perform better
Reliability
a measure of consistency in test results
Split-half Reliability
degree to which two halves of an exam have equal difficulty
high = taking odd numbers and even numbers separately. If scores from both halves of the test are comparable the exam has internal consistency as well
Test-Retest Reliability
the degree to which an assessment yields similar individual results each time it is taken
high reliability = people took ACT multiple times only to receive the same scores each time or improve by a single point
Validity
the degree to which assessments succeed in measuring what they are designed to measure
Concurrent Validity
a measure of how well a particular test correlates with a previously validated measure
Construct Validity
personality, intelligence, and other hypothetical concepts
requires an assessment to be based on the entire range of theoretical concepts that underlie the subject
Content Validity
when a test measure the content or subject of what it was designed to measure
Predictive Validity
if an assessment accurately forecasts performance on a future measure
Down Syndrome
disorder characterized by an extra chromosome 21. Round, flat face, slanted eyes, brain and weight is below average, muscle movements are clumsy and slow
Emotional Intelligence
the ability to assess and control the emotions of oneself and others
Flynn Effect
people are getting “smarter” or at least getting better at standardized tests
increased crystallized and fluid intelligence in generations
Gifted
those that score 2 or more standard deviations above the mean