PSY 351 Test #2 SDSU

specific outcomes people desire

influenced by motives, which are driven by needs

the psychological entities that drive us to behave in certain ways that will help us meet our goals

driven by needs & influences goals

something that is necessary to survive or thrive

drive motives, which influence goals

anticipating rewards for success

one of the two ways to react to a challenge

motivated more by moving toward the goal

worrying about the negative consequences of failure

one of the two ways to react to a challenge

motivated more by moving away from danger or failure

in one study, students took a cognitive performance test with their subject number written in either red, green, or black ink (randomly varied)

red ink made people perform worse on the test

red primed avoidance motivation b/c of its association with red pens and negative feedback and with red stop signs

in Western cultures, red is strongly associated with avoidance

people under threat tend to experience increased avoidance motivation while approach motivation doesn’t change

no life goals would matter if you didn’t have enough basic needs

a branch of psychology focused on the “whole person,” including free will, creativity, and human potential

Maslow was a proponent of & theorized humans must fulfill their needs in a certain order

breathing, food, water, shelter, clothing, sleep, sex

if you don’t get these, it’s tough to think of anything else

health, employment, property, social stability, resources

friendship, family, intimacy, a sense of connection

a fundamental human motivation

creates the motive to affiliate with others

confidence, achievement, respect of others

different from chapter 5

Maslow believed this need is best when it’s grounded in actual achievement and behavior (i.e., “deserved”) rather than undeserved and gained through cheating or inflated praise

creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, fulfilling potential, morality

the need to actualize or “make actual” your unique talents and abilities

attainment is rare

acceptance and love of someone’s whole self without conditions attached

• e.g., a parent liking or disliking their child’s actions but loving their child no matter what

Carl Rogers, a humanistic psychologist, believed experiencing this would let people get close to self-actualization

time competence (living in the present moment)

self-acceptance (including of weaknesses)

capacity for intimate contact

spontaneity

inner-directedness (e.g., “I feel free to not do what others expect of me”)

unconscious motivations

usually measured with projective tests

often measured by having people tell stories in response to pictures

• older version in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• more recent version in the Picture Story Exercise (PSE)

can be coded through analyzing speeches and stories

often does not align with explicit motives of an individual

theorized that people are driven mostly by implicit motives

according to his theory, you might not know the underlying motives for your own behavior

came up with a list of 27 implicit motives (research has heavily focused on only 3)

indirect measures

in theory, people project their motives onto the characters in a picture (such as in a TAT or PSE test)

power motive

achievement motive

affiliation motive

wanting to have an impact on others

people high in this motivation seek to influence others’ beliefs in subtle ways, such as appearing more competent and persuasive

• their parents generally allowed more aggressive or sexual behaviors

men high in this motive prefer mates & friends lower in status than themselves

originally called the need for power and abbreviated nPow

overlap with Maslow’s need for self-esteem

overlap with SDT’s need for autonomy

wanting to accomplish things, usually on one’s own and without help

people high in this motivation prefer moderately challenging tasks (i.e., not so hard that they cannot be accomplished and not so easy that they don’t gain a feeling of accomplishment)

originally called the need for achievement and abbreviated nAch

overlap with Maslow’s need for self-esteem

overlap with SDT’s need for competence

being motivated by one’s relationships with others

people high in this motivation are better able to make concessions in negotiations and end conflicts

women on average are higher in this motive than men

it was a married couple’s (the Lovings) court case that pushed to legalize interracial marriage

originally called the need for affiliation and abbreviated nAff

similar to Maslow’s need for belonging

overlap with SDT’s need for relatedness

psychologist David Winter coded implicit motives in every U.S. president’s inaugural speech

• high on nAff: both Bushes, Kennedy, Nixon

• high on nAch: Trump, Carter, Clinton

• high on nPow: Trump, Kennedy, Truman, W. Bush, Obama

conscious motivations

usually measured by self-report

often does not align with implicit motives of an individual

implicit motives are more likely to predict performance

• influenced by both conscious and unconscious factors

explicit motives are more likely to predict choices and judgments

• primarily conscious

argues that three needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) can explain much of human behavior

overlap: power & autonomy, achievement & competence, affiliation & relatedness

SDT focuses on explicit motives (those people consciously report)

• considers these three needs as essential to human functioning

Murray’s theory focuses on implicit motives (those which are not always conscious)

• most research here focuses on variations among people

having control over your actions and life

overlap with Murray’s implicit motive of power

being able to use your skills effectively and learn new ones

overlap with Murray’s implicit motive of achievement

feeling connected to others, both personally and in your community

overlap with Murray’s implicit motive of affiliation

a study measuring the 3 needs in eight countries found that they predicted meaning in life and personal growth about equally well in all eight countries

some cultures are better than others at satisfying these fundamental needs

if a culture or its economic system does not do a good job satisfying one or more of the needs, the culture might undergo a change or even a revolution

financial success, popularity or fame, and image or physical attractiveness

popular culture in the United States more often promotes these goals

people who focus on these are more likely to suffer from anxiety, depression, headaches, and stomachaches & are less likely to be happy

one study with game currency had people handle money

these people thought about growing up rich

these people were less likely to help others & more likely to want to work alone

personal growth, affiliation, and community feeling

things we know we “should” value

valuing these goals benefits the individual, cultures, nations, and the world as a whole

all try to understand individual differences in what people value and how it affects their actions

in general, focusing on one type of goal makes it more difficult to focus on a different type

e.g., achievement-focused people might not be able to focus as much on caring for others

question of whether or not we can we “have it all”

motivation outside the self

e.g., money or praise from others

sound good but can actually decrease intrinsic motivation to do well and their effects disappear when they are removed

• e.g., your professor asks you to read the textbook in return for a letter of recommendation so you do; you are less likely to want to read it in your own time afterward

motivation inside the self

e.g., taking joy in an activity

overall, the belief that ability is malleable (e.g., “I can get better if I work hard”) leads to greater motivation and better performance than the belief that ability is fixed (e.g., “I’m either smart or I’m not”)

in one study, preschoolers who like to draw were told they could earn a certificate with a large gold star & a ribbon

other children drew but either didn’t get an award or got one unexpectedly

a week later, those who were expectedly rewarded spent only half as much time drawing than those who didn’t get an award or unexpectedly got one

an area of psychology focused on what can make our lives better and what might make us happier

being aware of your thoughts and perceptions without clinging to them or judging whether they are good or bad

“the case where a monk remains focused on the body in and of itself--ardent, alert, and mindful--putting aside greed and distress with reference to the world” (Satipatthana Sutta, 2008)

people who are low in neuroticism and high in conscientiousness tend to be better at practicing this

practice has been shown to help treat anxiety disorders

the most common way to practice this is with meditation

can lead to peak experiences

times when people can transcend themselves and feel one with the world

often result in a flow state

the smooth passage of time that occurs during a peak experience, when you are completely immersed in an activity in the present moment

Csikszentmihalyi (1996) identified a “flow channel” between anxiety (when something is too difficult) and boredom (when something is too easy)

having a purpose and putting time and energy into attaining important goals

can come from religion, personal relationships, behaving in a way consistent with your beliefs, self-improvement

people who find their lives meaningful are happier, and happier people find more meaning in life

a branch of psychology that focuses on (relatively) simple explanations for outward behavior and is unconcerned with the inner workings of the mind

people do what they are rewarded for and avoid doing what they are punished for

central to environmental effects on personality

direct contrast to psychoanalytic theories

the basis for programs to improve child behavior, treat addiction, and help people sleep better

learning to behave from watching other people’s behavior

agreeableness & conscientiousness

shaping behavior (your own, someone else’s, and/or an animal’s) through rewards and punishments

most associated with B.F. Skinner

positive reinforcement

negative reinforcement

positive punishment

negative punishment

rewards or incentives for good behavior

often the most effective way to shape behavior of the four ways to modify behavior

Skinner’s experiments with animals relied on this type

positive means the addition of something rather than something being “good”

gradual training that rewards behavior progressively closer to the desired one

rewards desired behavior by taking away something aversive

e.g., your car stops beeping at you after you put on your seatbelt

least common way to shape behavior of the four ways to modify behavior

negative means the removal of something rather than something being “bad”

administering something aversive after misbehavior

what people usually mean when they refer to punishment

• punishment, especially physical, changes behavior only temporarily and can cause children to become more aggressive, making it not very effective

positive means the addition of something rather than something being “good”

punishments enacted naturally as a consequence of the negative behavior

e.g., a 4-year-old purposefully dumps her milk on the kitchen floor and so must help clean it up

stopping bad behavior by taking away something good

also known as a time-out

negative means the removal of something rather than something being “bad”

Edward Thorndike's research confining cats to puzzle boxes was a combination of both negative and positive reinforcement

negative reinforcement: the cat presses a lever (or pulls a string) and is freed from the box

positive reinforcement: the cat presses a lever (or pulls a string), leaves the box, and is rewarded with food

giving out rewards for good behavior at certain intervals

always giving out a reward for good behavior

e.g., giving your partner a kiss every time they take out the trash

only sometimes giving out a reward for good behavior

the four types:

• fixed-ratio reinforcement

• variable-ratio reinforcement

• fixed-interval reinforcement

• variable-ratio reinforcement

giving a reward after a certain number of behaviors

e.g., giving your partner a kiss only after they’ve taken out the trash twice

giving out a reward after a random number of behaviors

e.g., giving your partner a kiss after an unpredictable number of good behaviors

usually lead to the greatest increase in the desired behavior out of the four partial reinforcement schedules

giving out a reward after a certain amount of time has passed

e.g., giving your partner a kiss every three days

giving out a reward after a random amount of time has passed

e.g., giving your partner a kiss randomly at intervals of one to five days

how children learn to become mature members of society

also known as acculturation

different cultures and different families have different standards for this (e.g., arguing between members acceptable for some)

preschool children watched an adult woman repeatedly punch a large plastic toy that bounces back when hit

three groups: children who saw the woman get punished afterward, children who saw her rewarded, and children who saw no consequences either way

children who saw her punished were less likely to copy the woman’s actions than either of the other two groups

Bandura’s theory that a person’s behavior causes the environment alongside the environment causing behavior

reciprocal determinism

argues that personality arises from the environment’s effect on behavior, behavior’s effect on the environment, and the way people process their experiences

• e.g., when Bandura’s parents immigrated to Canada, their personalities helped dictate this choice (a behavior), and their behaviors (living far from home and clearing land) may have shaped their personalities (perhaps making them more conscientious)

practical application of operant conditioning to improve behavior

also known as behavior mod or b-mod

can use b-mod on others and self

a program in which good behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges

John Watson and B.F. Skinner believed that they could use the environment to shape children into any type of person they chose

this vision probably not realistic b/c personality is also determined by genetics, not just the environment (like we learned in chap 4)

what someone expects to happen, based on past experiences of what was rewarding

the decisions people think about and make every day based on past experiences

how enticing a particular reward is

e.g., value of meeting new people is less when in a relationship than if you are single and looking

our personalities and motivations also influence what rewards we value the most

beliefs about how often actions lead to rewards versus punishment

believing that events are more a matter of luck and the arbitrary decisions of powerful people

people with this locus are more likely to be anxious and depressed

linked to failure

believing that your actions have an effect on events

#1 predictor of school achievement among racial minority children

• i.e., believing that studying matters leads to more studying, which leads to better grades

Ivan Pavlov was originally studying digestion and wanted to find out how much dogs salivated when fed

he found that they began salivating before eating and sometimes even before seeing the food b/c they began to associate the person who brought the food (or the bell) with the food

associating two things not normally associated with each other

associations can occur in everyday life after traumatic or unpleasant experiences

the stimulus normally producing the unconditioned response

e.g., food producing salivation

the response normally produced by the unconditioned stimulus

e.g., salivation being produced by food

the stimulus that produces the conditioned response after classical conditioning

e.g., a bell causing dogs to salivate

the response produced by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning

e.g., salivation following the sound of the bell

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner’s experiment that had a child named Albert conditioned to fear a white rat

at first, there was no fear; then, Watson & Rayner would make a loud, unpleasant noise every time Albert saw the rat (making him cry)

Albert’s fear transferred to other small, white things such as rabbits, dogs, and fur coats (generalized)

he was not deconditioned

when a conditioned response is elicited in response to things similar to the conditioned stimulus

reversing conditioning to eliminate the conditioned response

this process may begin with discrimination and ultimately end in extinction

narrowing the conditions that produce the conditioned response (i.e., making the fear less broad)

elimination of the conditioned response

relearning a conditioned response

getting used to something in the environment and not responding as strongly anymore

e.g., you don’t think about the feeling of clothes against your skin very often

useful for studying infants b/c they will look at something new longer than something familiar

make sure you associate your bed with relaxation and sleep (as opposed to doing work on a laptop or fighting with your partner over the phone)

this is especially helpful for people who score high in neuroticism, as they are more prone to insomnia

an intense fear of a specific thing

a treatment for phobias that attempts to reduce fear in many small steps by associating the feared thing with calmness

e.g., imagining a lesser/fake version of the fear, then imaging the real fear, then imagining doing/interacting with the fear, then seeing a fake version of the fear in person, then seeing the real fear from a distance in person, then gradually getting closer until you touch/do the fear

learning how to systematically relax your body so your mind calms

a part of the systematic desensitization process

confronting your worst fear head-on, all at once

more acutely upsetting than the other treatment but completed much quicker

data is collected at one time that compares people of different ages

the downside to this compared to a longitudinal study is that the different ages groups are also different people

genetically based behavioral tendencies seen in young children

used to study children’s personality b/c they’re too young to answer questions about their own personality

of the Big Five, extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism overlap the most with this (i.e., they’re the easiest to describe & observe)

• children’s personality traits begin to more clearly resemble the Big Five structure common in adults by age 16

these factors in childhood are reasonably good at predicting personality during early young adulthood

three longitudinal and two cross-sectional studies find that both boys’ and girls’ openness to experience increases between age 11 and 18

self-esteem is moderate during elementary school, dips during the early teen years, and then increases during high school and young adulthood

girls’ self-esteem doesn’t increase as fast as boys’ does between middle school and high school

a 20-year longitudinal study of 104 people found that men’s self-esteem was significantly higher than women’s at age 23

has only a small effect (4% of differences in personality at most)

youngest children have slightly higher agreeableness & are more open to experience

oldest children have slightly higher extraversion and self-confidence

very little evidence that middleborns differ from their siblings

research does not back up the claim that only children are selfish and poorly adjusted

• a meta-analysis found no differences between them & those with siblings on leadership, maturity, cooperativeness, autonomy, self-control, anxiety, popularity with peers, or extraversion

on average, people become less neurotic and more conscientious as they age from young adulthood to middle adulthood

many studies conclude that much of the change in adult personality is complete by age 30

personality develops and changes the most during childhood & becomes most stable when people are in their 40s & 50s

of the Big Five, agreeableness is the only trait that continues to increase after the age of 50

the age/generation difference found in studies looking at narcissism is about twice as large as the generational difference in narcissism

• suggests at least some differences in narcissism are due to age

shifts in a population’s average scores with age