AP Psych Unit Test Chapter 6

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. low threshold means you are more sensitive, while high threshold means you are less sensitive

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. They can vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

it carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating an area you can’t see because no receptor cells are located there

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

nearby figures grouped together

perceive smooth, continuous patterns than discontinuous ones

fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object.

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even while the retina’s changing images of them

we perceive objects as having a constant size even when distance to them varies

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

the sense or act of hearing

The number of complete waves that pass a given point in a certain amount of time

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; high pitch→ short wavelength/high frequency; low pitch→ long wavelength/low frequency

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea oval window

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

most common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

neural cells can alternate firing to achieve a combined frequency >1000 waves per second, which is something an individual neural cell can’t do

Combination of spots sensitive to pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

pain receptors

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

activity in spinal cord’s large and small fibers; genetic diffs in endorphin production; the brain’s interpretation of CNS activity

attention to pain; learning based on experience; expectations

presence of others; empathy for others’ pain; cultural expectations

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Body position. The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. Any change in the position of a body part, interacting with vision; kinesthetic sensors in joints, tendons, and muscles

Body movement. The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. Because of the hair-like receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs.

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

sensory analysis; unlearned visual phenomena; critical for sensory development

selective attention; learned schemas; gestalt principles; context effects; perceptual set

cultural assumptions and expectations

rods and cones in the retina

cochlear hair cells in the inner ear

skin receptors detect pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

basic tongue receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami

millions of receptors at top of nasal cavity