UNIT 2: Developmental Psychology

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences leads to development

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience (ex. you can't rush the process of learning to walk)

pruning process

shuts down unused neural pathways and strengthens others

zygote

fertilized egg

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

teratogens

Agents that damage the process of development (ex. alcohol, drugs, viruses, etc.)

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics (ex. wider hips, body hair, deeper voice, etc.)

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women (XX = female)

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males (XY = male)

testosterone

male hormone

menopause

gradual ending of menstruation

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation (ex. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner)

schema

a concept that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

forming a new schema or drastically altering one

sensorimotor stage (0-2)

Child explores the world through interaction with environment through five senses, needs to develop object permanence and stranger anxiety

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when they are not within sight

stranger anxiety

infants learn to differentiate between people and become wary of strangers

preoperational stage (2-6/7)

Child learns to use language but still struggles with logic since they have not mastered conservation and continue to experience egocentrism and Theory of Mind

conservation

mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentrism

Difficulty taking another's point of view (ex. I have a sister named Mary. Does Mary have a sister? Nope :D

Theory of Mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe (graduating from egocentrism :D)

concrete operational stage (7-12)

Child understands simple logic, reversibility, and conservation

reversibility

principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition (ex. 1+2 = 2+1 and water can be poured into something and also poured back into where it came from without any changes made)

formal operational stage (12+)

People begin to think logically about abstract concepts

criticism of Piaget

Stages are too rigid

Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development Theory

the more the difficult a task is, the more guidance the child needs to master it --> scaffolding/guided learning

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Communication deficits, restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities (ex. Theory of Mind is not mastered)

imprinting

some animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life (Lorenz and his geese)

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Measured how attached a child was towards a caregiver by looking for separation/stranger anxiety and response to reunion

Harlow Experiment

Proved contact comfort by experimenting on baby monkeys, who preferred "cloth mother" over the "wire mother" that gave food because "cloth mother" gave reassurance from physical touch

secure attachment

able to separate from parent, seek comfort from parent when scared, and prefers parents to strangers --> have long-lasting relationships and tendency to seek support as an adult

insecure attachment

avoidant (little preference between parent and stranger --> not willing to share feelings as an adult) and ambivalent (not comforted by return of parent but distressed when parent leaves --> reluctant to be close with others as an adult)

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity (easy, slow-to-warm, difficult, and no-single-category babies)

Baumrind's Parenting Styles

authoritarian, authoritative (ideal), neglectful, permissive

Erikson

Studied psychosocial development across the lifespan

relational aggression

behavior that is meant to harm the social standing of another person (ex. gossip) and women are more likely to do this

cross-sectional study

comparing people of different ages at the same time

cohort-sequential study

different groups over a small period of time

longitudinal study

follows and retests same group over a long period of time

retrospective study

remembering (ex. tell me about your childhood)

Alzheimer's disease

an irreversible, progressive brain disorder characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Kohlberg's Morality Stages

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

preconventional morality

morality of self-interest

conventional morality

morality of law and social order

postconventional morality

actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

intersex

possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

sexual orientation

sexual attraction toward members of one's own sex and/or the other sex

sex vs gender

biologically defined status by chromosomes and physical anatomy vs socially influenced characteristics by which people define boys and girls

criticism of Kohlberg

Gilligan: cultural bias, sexism, and the existence of moral intuition

outcome of authoritarian parenting

obedient but unhappy

outcome of authoritative parenting

high self-esteem and good relationships

outcome of permissive parenting

lack of self-control

outcome of neglectful parenting

difficulty trusting others

trust vs. mistrust

first stage in which infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

autonomy vs. shame/doubt

second stage in which a toddler learns to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

initiative vs. guilt

third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities

industry vs. inferiority

fourth stage in which child learns to be productive and perform tasks

identity vs. role confusion

fifth stage in which teenagers search for and become their true selves

intimacy vs. isolation

sixth stage in which young adults struggle to form deeply personal relationships

generativity vs. stagnation

seventh stage in which middle-aged people try to find their purpose and want to contribute to the world (kind of like mid-life crisis)

integrity vs. despair

eighth stage in which old people reflect on their lives either with fulfillment or regret