AP Biology Chapters 1-7 Review

organization, information, energy + matter, interactions, evolution.

inductive: specific observation →general conclusion

deductive: general observation →specific conclusion

20-25%

formula of compound showing the number of atoms of each element (ie. C4H10)

showing how atoms in molecules are bonded together

compounds have to have at least 2 dif elements

organic molecules that have identical formulas but different arrangement of atoms

space where electrons are found; electron shells contain electrons at particular energy levels distributed among orbitals

2

number of protons; determines atoms identity

average of mass number (protons + neutrons) for all isotopes

atoms of same element with different amounts of neutrons

the position of the molecules orbitals (ie. atoms with s and p orbitals make tetrahedrons)

concentration, reactants

cohesion of water molecules, moderation if temperature by water, floating of ice on liquid water, water being te solvent of life.

water molecules are linked by multiple hydrogen bonds making water more structured, this results in cohesion which is the cause of high surface tension and adhesion which can counter gravity.

water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing stored heat to air that is cooler.

specific heat is the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of substance to change 1 degree C. water’s ability to stabilize temperature is due to its relatively high specific heat.

heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds and released when they form. so when heat is absorbed by water most of it is used to break hydrogen bonds before the molecules can move faster.

the process in which the surface of an object becomes cooler during evaporation, contributes to the stability of lakes and ponds.

water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid because it expands when it solidifies, so ice is less dense than liquid water causing it to float

water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity

an acid is a substance that increases the hydrogen ion (h+) concentration of a solution by donating hydrogen ions. numbers 1-7 on pH scale

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion (h+) concentration of a solution by accepting hydrogen ions or dissociating to form hydroxide ions (OH-) which combine with hydrogen ions to form water. number 7-14 on pH scale

the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration: pH= -log[H+)

a substance that maintains changes in concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution.

length, branching, double bond position, presence of rings

isomers that differ in the covalent arrangement of atoms

isomers that differ in the spatial arragement of their atoms due to the inflexibilty of double bonds

cis- 2 atom/atom groups on same side

trans- 2 atom/atom groups on oposite sides

isomers that are mirror images of each other in shape due to presence of asymetric carbon, usually only 1 side is effective

hyrdoxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups

a reaction in which 2 monomers are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of water molecule to form a polymer.

the dissembling of polymer by the addition of a water molecule.

CH2O

carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups

aldose- cabonyl group at end of the skeleton (glucose)

ketose- carbonyl group within skeleton (fructose)

a covalent bond btw 2 monosaccharides by dehydration reaction

storage and structure

starch- a polymer of glucose stored by plants that can be withdrawn with hydrolysis to be used a energy

glycogen- a polymer of glucose used by animals as short term energy

cellulose- used in the walls of cell plants, the unbrached structure helps to impart strength

chitin- used by anthropods to build exoskeletons and by fungi to replace cellulose

a glycerol molecule joined to 3 fatty acids; they re hydrophobic and main function is energy storage

long carbon skeletons with 16-18 hydrocarbons connected to a carboxyl group

the nonpolar hydrogen-carbon bonds in the fatty acids

saturated fats- dont have double bonds so more saturated with hydrogen resulting in them being solid

unsaturated fats- contain 1 or more double bonds so less hydrgogen resulting in them being liquid

a glycerol connected to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group; major part of membranes

hydrophobic, hydrophillic

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings (ie. cholesterol)

an organic molecule with both an amino group and carboxyl group; protein monomer

when 2 amino acids are positioned with the carboxyl group one to the amino group of another, a dehydration reaction can join them to form a polypeptide

primary structure- linear chain of amino acids

secondary structure- regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds btw atoms of the polypeptide backbone (coils and folds)

tertiary structure- 3-D shape stabilized by interactions btw side chains (overall shape)

quarternary structure- association of 2 or more polypeptides

change in pH, change in salt concentration, change in temperature can cause denaturation

store, transmit, and help express hereditary information

a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group

5, 3

the system study of whole sets of genes and interactions as well as comparisons btw species

the use of computer software that can handle large data sets

a microscope in which visible light is passed through the specimen and the through glass lenses which refract the light to magnify it

to enhance magnification, resolution, and contrast

a microscope that focuses a beam of electrons through specimen and onto surface

transmission electron microscope- used to study internal structure of cells; specimen is stained with heavy metal to enhance electron density

scanning electron microscope- used for detailed study of topography of specimen; electron beam excites electrons and electrons are scanned and displayed as 3-D

a double membrane that is perforated by pore structures; a protein structure called pore complex regulates entry and exit; the nuclear envelope is lined with nuclear lamina, protein filaments which maintain shape

cellular components that carry out protein synthesis; they are suspended in the cytosol (free) or attached to the ER or nuclear envelope (bound)

ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles

a bio synthetic factory that consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacks called cisternae

the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and does the synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poison, and storage of calcium ions

the rough Er contains ribosomes and makes secretory proteins and is a membrane factory (phospholipids)

the golgi consistes of membranous sacs called cisternae, the cis face of the cisternae is near the ER and receives products, the trans face is on the other side ships products to vesicles

digestive compartments; membranes of hydrolytic enzymes that eukaryotic cells use to digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules

when a lysosome containing active hydrolytic enzymes fuses with a food vacuole and the enzymes digest the food particles, which become nutrients for the cell

when a vesicle with a damaged organelle fuses with a lysosome; the organelle is digested and its components recycled

contractile vacuole- used by unicellular protists to pump water

central vacuole- absorbs water and enlarges in plants to minimize growth of cytoplasm

it states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells (host cell) engulfed and oxygen using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell and they eventually merged to a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion

• there are 2 membranes surrounding mitochondrion and choloplast

• ribosomes and DNA in inner membranes

• they are autonomous

• enclosed by 2 lipid bilayers embedded with proteins

• the mitochondiral matrix (enclosed by inner membrane) contians enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes

• the cristae (fold in inner membrane) gives large surface area to enhance productivity

intermembrane; thylakoids inside make stacks called granum; outside of thylakois is the stroma which contains DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes

they are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by membrane; they contain enzymes that remove hyrdogne and transfer it to oxygen creating H202 (hydrogen peroxide) to be used for cellular respiration

to give mechanical support to the cell and maintain its shape

to shape and support cells and re tracks for motor proteins; they also guide vesicales in cell distribution

hollow rods contructed from globular proteins called tubulins

consist of 2 polypeptides called a tubulim and b tubulim, they grow by adding more tubulim dimmer and have a plus end that adds or releases tubulims at a higher rate

cillia, flagella

thin solid rods made from actin (a globular protein) that bear tension and support cell shape to make cell gel like; they also make the protein myosin for muscle cell contraction

found in vertebrates as a permanent cell shape holder (they bear tension); they are very sturdy and surround nucleus

made from microfibrils made of cellulose with a mix of proteins and strong pores

a part of animal cells that regulates cell behavior made up of glycoproteins and carb containing molecules (collagen and fibroconectin)

specialized junctions that connect plant cell walls

tight junctions- tightly pressed, bounded by proteins

desmones- long sheets, muscle cells

gap junctions- communications, tissue, embryo

membranes are held together by weak interactions and materials can shift making fluid

penetrate the hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer

not embedded in lipid bilayer

transport- channel of shuttle

enzymatic activity- enzyme where reactants bind

signal transduction- signaling molecule can relay message to cell

cell cell recognition- ID tags

intercellular joining- hook together

attachment to cytoskeleton of ECM- maintain cell shape

some substances cross easier than other

hydrophobic

hydrophobic, polar

by avoiding contact with lipid bilayer by using transport proteins

by having a hydrophillic passageway

by holding passages and changing shapes to shuttle across membrane

the movement of particles of any substance so that they spread out into the available space

more, less, down