psych 240 exam 1

introspection

_________ is looking inside and see what is going on. Writing down what is going on inside of the mind while doing the task. Structualists: Wilhelm Wundt & Edward Titchener

problems with introspection

1. difficult to verify

2. private, not public

3. end product, not the mental process itself

behaviorism

___________ is the science of behavior. Emphasis on what can be directly observed → stimuli, responses, rewards. Ignores the mind since it is unobservable. Behaviorists: Ivan Pavlov and John Watson

problems with behaviorism

1. can’t account for the diversity of human behavior (ex. language)

2. limiting science to the observable is a bad idea

receives, transforms, sends

information processing

1. _______ information from previous stage

2. _______ the information

3. _______ information to the next stage

dependent variables

what you need to measure/analyze

independent variables

what you manipulate in an experiment

mental chronometry

________ _______ is the study of a time course of mental processes

subtraction method

______ ______ is when two tasks are identical in every way, except a mental operation that is to be involved in one of the tasks and omitted in the other.

pure insertion, additivity, stages

problems with the subtraction method:

1. assumption of _____ ______: all stages remain the same when a new one is added (adding stage may influence another)

2. assumption of ________: duration of all stages added together to yield rxn time (stages may operate in parallel)

3. assumes you know what the ____ are.

cognitive approach

______ ______ is infering what’s going on inside the box

computational view of mind

mainstream underlying assumption that the mind is somehow like a computer program

mental chronometry

_______ _______ is the study of the time course of mental processes

encoding

getting information into our memory

storage and retrieval

_____ is maintaining info over time

_____ is the ability to access information when you need it

elaborative rehearsal

________ _______ is thinking about meaning/connecting it to previously learned things in memory (most effective)

maintenance rehearsal

_______ _______ is saying the material over and over again (not effective)

massed practice

______ ______ is few long study sessions (not effective)

distributed practice

_______ ______ is lots of shorter study sessions (effective)

practice, elaborative, retrieval

testing effect

1. ______ testing skills (transfer processing)

2. ________ retrieval more context/connections

3. _________ effort (vs. recognition)

confidence, memory

repeated study causes high _______, but worse ______

dialectic

(sternberg): the process of evolving ideas through these, antitheses, and syntheses. thesis + antithesis = synthesis

structuralism

(sternberg): to understand the structure of the mind by analyzing the mind into its constituent components or contents

functionalism

(sternberg): how and why the mind works as it does. the study of mental processes

behaviorism

(sternberg): science of psychology should deal with only observable behavior

cognitivism

(sternberg): belief that much of human behavior can be understood if we understand how people think

performance

(bjork): what we can observe and measure during instruction or training

learning

(bjork): permanent change in knowledge that is target of instruction

perception

______ is when information acquired from environment via sense organs that turn into experiences of taste, sound, objects, etc. has automatic properties that allow us to easily identify things, stable

distal stimulus

______ ______ is an object in external world

proximal stimulus

_____ _____ is the registration of stimulus on sense organ

percept

______ is the mental representation of a distal stimulus

lack of correspondence

______ ___ __________ is when the percept doesn’t correspond to distal stimulus (perceiving something that isn’t there) ex) optical illusions

paradoxical correspondence

___________ ____________ is when a proximal stimulus doesn’t correspond to distal stimulus, but percept does. ex) moving eyes and hand at the same time, eyes move as eye moves

perceptual constancies

________ _________ is the perception of an object’s features remain constant even when viewpoint and proximal stimulus changes

direct perception, bottom-up

_______ ___________ environment provides all necessary cues, brains are pre-wired for cues, stimulus information, and are always unambiguous (_____-__ ONLY)

constructivist theory, bottom-up, top-down

________ ______ explains that perception uses data from the world, prior knowledge, and expectations. (____-__ AND ___-_____)

bottom-up processing

______-___ ________ is processing that is driven by the external stimulus, rather than internal knowledge.

top-down processing

___-____ ________ is the process driven by knowledge and expectations.

linear perspective

_____ ________ is as parallel lines move away, they merge

shape, distorted

______ gets ______ as they move farther away

relative size

_______ ______ explains as objects move farther away, they get smaller

interposition

________ explains placement of objects in front/behind each other

shadows

______ give depth

accomodation

______ causes lens in the eyes to change to be able to focus on objects near and far with clarity

retinal disparity, binocular

______ _______ is a _________ cue used to perceive depth between two near objects. each eye receives different images because they are 2 inches apart.

convergence, binocular

___________ is a __________ cue that explains as an object gets closer to you, your eyes will come closer together too

retina

______ is a part of the eye where light is concentrated and passes across neural layers

rods

______ are photoreceptors that detect brightness

cones, fovea

_______ are photoreceptors that are concentrated in the ______ (center of visual focus) and detect color (blues, reds, greens)

neuron

just know this

all-or-none

____-__-____ is when action potentials always have the same strength Either you get all of it (if above threshold) or none of it

propagation

________ is when once past threshold, active process (ion pumping) propagates action potential down axon

refractory period

_________ _____ is a short period of time after firing before neuron can fire again

threshold

the potential must get above _______ to fire or generate an action potential

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers called ____________ signals through neurons across synapses

synpases

small gaps between neurons are called _______

electrochemical transmission

neurons use _____________ _____________ because it involves electrical action potential within cells and chemical neurotransmitter between cells

summation

during ________, all combined effects of synapses take potential across axon above threshold, then neuron will fire an action potential

receptive field

_______ _____ is the area of the external world in which stimulation causes a neuron to respond

excitation

______ is the process by which a neuron’s membrane potential increases

inhibition

_______ is a process whereby neural activity patterns are suppressed

center-surround

______-_______ is when….. (not sure yet)

transient, large, movement

magnocellular layers:

1. ______ response

2. ______ receptive field

3. ______/location

sustained, small, patterns/form

parvocellular layers:

1. _____ response

2. _____ receptive field

3. _____/_____/colors

lateral geniculate nucleus

_______ ________ _______ receives information from optic nerve first and sends it to the occipital lobe

thalamus

contains the lateral geniculate nucleus, first place in the brain visual information is processed.

cerebral cortex

just know this

simple

primary visual cortex

_____ cells:

1. bars of light

2. specific orientation

3. specific retina position

complex

primary visual cortex

______ cells:

1. edges

2. movement

hypercomplex

primary visual cortex

________ cells:

1. very specific shapes

2. corners

3. gaps

dorsal pathway

identifying location of an object (where), occipital and parietal lobes

ventral pathway

identifying what an object is (what), occipital and temporal lobes

kohler experiment

used location and identification tasks with PET imaging to see dorsal/ventral pathways

PET scanning

neuroimaging using blood flow

population coding

_________ _______ is the need for patterns of activation across a population of cells to recognize objects

fMRI/PET

___/___ scanning are neuroimaging using blood flow. good for spatial, not for temporal.

EEG/MEG/ERP

___/___/___ scanning are neuroimaging using electrical activity. bad for spatial, good for temporal.

TMS

___ scanning is neuroimaging using magnetic fields

lesions

brain damage

modality-specific localization impairment

patient A.H could tell what the object was but could not localize where it was

identification

__________ is the ability to recognize what the object is

localization

_________ is when a patient is unable to locate where something is using vision

constructive

visual experience is indirect

perception is _________

patient AH

McCloskey reading: patient suffers an impairment of localizing from vision

pattern recognition

_______ _________ is the ability to recognize and identify a stimulus. happens after perception

bottom-up processing

incoming stimulus initiates and determines higher level processes needed for recognition, interpretation, and categorization. process originates in sensory areas and proceeds up to higher levels of cognition. (lec 4)

template

______ theory that says we make a template for every object we see or interact with. comparing an incoming stimulus to a mental image or representation.

transformations, obstructions

problems with template theory:

1. _________: once the object is transformed, it will not line up with the template. ex) differences in handwritten letters

2. __________: we sometimes do not get the full view of an object but can still identify it.

feature

______ theory says we can recognize an object when the features we perceive match the features of a particular object representation stored in memory. more flexible than template theory.

neurons, retinal stabilization, caricatures, visual search

evidence for feature theory

1. feature detecting ______ in the brain (simple cells in the brain)

2. r_____ s_______: features of an image begin to disappear when the inage is constant on the retina

3. faster to recognize c_________ (exaggerated features)

4. feature distinctiveness affects the speed of v_____ s______

features, orientations

problems with feature theory

1. some objects cannot be recognized by f_______ alone

2. different objects can share the same features in different o________

pandemonium model

_____________ ______ are “demons” that receive and analyze the features of a stimulus. start at a low level and proceed up (bottom-up). competition between cognitive demons

visual search

______ _______ is a perceptual task requiring attention that involves an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or feature (target) among other object or features (distractors)

recognition by components

__________ ___ ________ (RBC): recognition is achieved due to the arrangement of an object’s component geons. good at transformations, relationships between features, and explaining how we make sense of nonsense objects

partial, complexity, orientation

evidence for RBC

1. _____ or degraded objects

2. object _______

3. unusual __________

arrangement

problem with RBC theory

many objects are made of the same __________ of geons, bit we can still distinguish between them. ex) faces

geons

______ are shapes that form simple parts of objects

non-accidental properties

____-________ ____________: visual characteristics of an object that tend to remain consistent across changes in viewpoint, lighting, or other variations in a visual environment. third column: no non-accidental properties