Gen bio finals

Chloroplast

Site of photosynthesis in plants

Chloroplast

An organelle located in the leaf mesophyll

Transpiration

Process in plants that release water vapor through the openings in leaves

Transpiration

Process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts

Guard cells

What cells are responsible for opening and closing the stomata?

Guard cells

use osmotic pressure to open and close stomata

chlorophyll

A light absorbing green pigment that plays an important role in photosynthesis

Xylem

what tissue in plants carry water and minerals

Xylem

A specialized tissue of vascular plants

phloem

A vascular tissue in charge of transport and distribution of the organic nutrients

Xylem

Makes the transport of water and minerals possible

Xylem

occupies the central part of the plants, which is the largest

Vessels

In a mature flowering plant or tree, most of the cells that make up the xylem are specialized cells called

Vessels

Lose their end walls so the xylem forms a continuous, hollow tube. this allows water to flow easily

Vessels

become strengthened by a chemical called lignin.

Lignin

Gives strength and support to the vessel.

Xylem

Transport in the ___ is a physical process. It does not require energy

Phloem

Responsible for transporting the products of photosynthesis throughout the plant body.

Phloem

From the leaves of the plant they will deliver the product substance to the rest of body

phloem

occupies the marginal side of the plants

Translocation

Transport of substances in phloem is called

phloem

consists of living cells

Sieve tubes, companion cells

cells that make up the phloem

sieve tubes

specialized for transport and have no nuclei.

sieve tubes

Has a perforated end so its cytoplasm connects one cell to the next

Companion cells

Transport of subtances in the phloem cells requires energy

companion cells

One or more ___ attached to each sieve tube provide this energy.

companion cells

A sieve tubes is completely dependent on it

Plant organization

The xylem and phloem are distributed differently in roots and stems, in the roots the xylem forms a central column, forming a solid support.

Stem

In the ____, the transport tissues of the xylem and phloem are grouped into vascular bundles

radial rays

In the trees, we can find ____ along their trunks

Radial rays

These tissues are common in woody plants for radial distribution of food

Environmental conditions

During the growth season affect xylem growth

Vascular cambium

produces xylem cells that can carry a lot of water cells that are large and thin walled when temperatures are cool and water is plentiful, as in the typical spring

Vascular cambium

produces narrow, thick-walled cells under hot, dry conditions, as in the typical summer

Radial system

functions primarily in the transport of carbohydrates from the inner bark to the wood

radial system

there are some food storage cells in this system as well

Ray cell

Interrupt the interconnections of the tracheids or fibres

Apoplast pathway

Movement through the cell walls and spaces between cells

Symplast pathway

Water and minerals pass through a continuum of cytoplasm between cells, called plasmodesma

Transmembrane Pathway

involves transport between cells across the membranes of vacuoles within cells

Stomatal transpiration

It is the evaporation of water through stomata. Stomata are specialized pores in the leaves

Cuticular Transpiration

The evaporation of water happens through the lenticels

Lenticular Transpiration

This type of transpiration is the loss of water from plants as vapor through the lenticels

Relative Humidity, Air Movement, Temperature, Light, Surface Area of Leaf, Water Availability, Opening and Closing of Stomata, Ascent of Sap

Factors Affecting Transpiration in Plants

Water potential

The one of the main factors that regulate the transport process in plants. This represents free energy or the potential to do work

Water potential

Furthermore, this is used to predict where water will move. Take note that water will move from a cell or solution with higher water potential to a cell or solution with lower water potential.

Guttation

This happens if sunlight is absent. During nighttime the rate of transpiration is low, that’s why ions accumulate in the roots of plants, causing root pressure buildup. This will cause the water to enter the cells by osmosis.

Turgor pressure

The influx of water into the cell can produce this kind of pressure. This causes the plasma membrane to push against the cell wall, during the transport in phloem.

Pressure flow theory

This can demonstrate turgor pressure; it states that dissolved carbohydrates which flow from a source, are brought to a sink where these either stored or utilized

Sucrose

travels from mesophyll cells of the leaves to the companion and sieve cells through symplast

Protists

Exchange gases directly with the water in their surroundings through the cell membrane.

Sponges and Cnidarians

Also aquatic animals that exchange gases directly with body cells and the environment.

Fishes

Have a heart that is two chambered. Gas exchange is made more efficient through the countercurrent flow

Frogs

The heart is three chambered with two atria and one ventricle. In the ventricle, partial mixing of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood happens. From the ventricle, blood is pumped to reach the lungs and skin where gas exchange will take place.

cutaneous breathing

Under water, they utilize their skin for gas exchange, which is also referred to as

External respiration, Internal respiration

There are two types of gas exchange in the human body.

External respiration

the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the lungs

Internal respiration

is gas exchange between the cells and the blood.

Nose

Two openings in the ___ serve as the entrance for the passage of air into the body. In the nose, air is cleaned, moistened, and warmed

Pharynx

This is also known as the throat, is found at the back of the mouth. During inhalation, a flap of cartilage called epiglottis is in an upright position and air moves into the trachea or windpipe.

Larynx

This is also called voice box or Adam’s apple, is more prominent in males than in females. Sounds are produced when air is forced past two vocal cords that stretch across the.

Trachea

: This is most often called the windpipe , it is located in front of the esophagus. It is about 10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide and is lined with mucous membranes and cilia.

Bronchi

The trachea is divided into two hollow branches, called . Each bronchus is attached to the lungs.

Lungs

These are large, spongy , and elastic sac like structures suspended from each side of the heart, inside the chest cavity.

air sacs

In the ______, oxygen diffuses through the capillaries and into the bloodstream.

nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

The air that we inhale is a mixture of gases which includes

Circulatory system

The system that contains the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

Circulatory system

This system moves the blood throughout the body.

Circulatory system

This system helps tissues and cells get enough oxygen and nutrients, and it also helps them get rid of waste materials.

Problems with your heart’s pumping action. Changes to your heart’s structure. Inefficient blood flow.

CIRCULATORY DISEASES CAN CAUSE THE FOLLOWING

Cardiovascular diseases, Vascular diseases

CATEGORIES OF DISEASES THAT AFFECT THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Cardiovascular diseases

which affect your heart and/or blood vessels.

Vascular diseases

which affect your blood vessels.

ANEURYSMS

Are weak spots in the walls of your arteries that can expand like a balloon.

ANEURYSMS

As they continue to get bigger, they’re at risk for rupture (breaking open) or causing blood clots. Can occur in any artery (aortic aneurysms)

Fusiform, pseudoaneurysms, saccular, dissecting, ruptured

Types of aneurysms

ARRHYTHMIAS

Is an irregular or abnormal heartbeat. Prevent your heart from contracting and relaxing normally.

ARRHYTHMIAS

Atrial fibrillation is the most common type

supraventricular arrhythmias

Some begin in the upper chambers of the heart. These are called

ventricular arrhythmias

Others begin in the lower chambers of your heart These are called

Ventricular fibrillation

is a life threatening medical emergency because it can lead to sudden death.

ATHEROSCLEROSIS

Is the buildup of plaque in your arteries.

plaque

Over time, the _____ narrows your arteries and makes it harder for blood to flow through.

plaque

The _____ is also dangerous because it can rupture and trigger a blood clot

Carotid artery stenosis

plaque buildup in the arteries in your neck.

Coronary artery disease

plaque buildup in the arteries.

Peripheral artery disease

plaque buildup also in the arteries.

Plaque

is made up of deposits of fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste

Blood pressure

is a number that shows how forcefully blood flows through your blood vessels.

Hypertension

High blood pressure throughout the arteries in your body.

Hypotension

Low blood pressure throughout your body.

Portal hypertension

High blood pressure in the vein that carries blood from your intestines to your liver

Pulmonary hypertension

High blood pressure in the arteries that carry blood from your heart to your lungs

CARDIOMYOPATHY

Is a group of conditions that affect your heart muscle, leading to weakened heart squeeze. These conditions harm your heart’s ability to pump blood.

Dilated cardiomyopathy

your heart chambers get bigger

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Your heart muscle gets thicker

Peripartum cardiomyopathy

our heart weakens late in pregnancy or soon after delivery

CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE

Abnormalities in the anatomy of the heart. Refers to heart problems babies are born with. Is sometimes heritable

Patent Ductus Arteriosus

PDA

HEART FAILURE

Is a progressive disease. Happens when your heart can’t pump blood as well as it should.

congestive heart failure

Later stages of heart failure are called

HEART VALVE DISEASE

Can affect any of your four heart valves. A diseased valve strains your heart. Over time, this can lead to complications like heart failure or sudden cardiac death.

Mitral valve regurgitation

your mitral valve is leaky , causing some blood to flow backward.

Aortic valve stenosis

your aortic valve is too narrow , limiting how much blood can flow through.

Aortic valve regurgitation

your aortic valve is leaky.

HIGH CHOLESTEROL

Too many fats in your blood can be dangerous.

lipids

We all need to have some ____ in our blood.

Fats

do important work in our bodies.

Hyperlipidemia

high cholesterol can raise your risk of many other medical conditions.

Familial hypercholesterolemia

high cholesterol that’s passed down within biological families. People with this condition have very high LDL (bad cholesterol) levels.

STROKE

Is a life threatening emergency that needs immediate medical attention. It happens when blood flow to your brain gets interrupted

Ischemic stroke

a blood clot blocks an artery leading to your brain.

Hemorrhagic stroke

there’s bleeding in your brain (sometimes, from a ruptured blood vessel or head injury), which blocks brain cells from receiving blood.

Transient ischemic attack

a blood clot temporarily blocks blood flow to your brain, causing a “mini stroke.”

VASCULITIS

Is an inflammation of your blood vessels caused by an overactive immune system.

VASCULITIS

Can affect your veins, arteries or capillaries. This inflammation can narrow or block your blood vessel. It can also weaken your blood vessel and cause an aneurysm.

VENOUS DISEASES

Are a group of conditions that affect your veins. It can completely block blood flow.

Chronic venous insufficiency

our leg veins struggle to pump blood back up to your heart. This causes blood to collect in your leg veins.

Deep vein thrombosis

blood clot forms in one of your deep veins. If the clot breaks free, it can travel to your lungs and cause a life threatening pulmonary embolism.

feedback mechanism

is a physiological regulation system in a living body that works to return the body to its normal internal state, or commonly known as homeostasis.

Positive feedback

occurs to increase the change or output: the result of a reaction is amplified to make it occur more quickly.

Negative feedback

occurs to reduce the change or output: the result of a reaction is reduced to bring the system back to a stable state.

Endocrine system

is made up of several organs called glands.

Hormones

are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell your body what to do and when to do it.

endocrine system

The ______ continuously monitors the amount of hormones in the blood.

Hormones

Either made of amino acids (peptides) or lipids

Endocrine

- Ductless - Release their secretions or products directly into the blood stream - Thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands are the examples

Exocrine

- Release their secretions or products through the ducts - Mammary, tear and salivary glands are the examples

Pheromones

Control the growth and metamorphosis of insects and other arthropods

Metamorphosis

Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops including birth or hatching

Exocrine gland secreting peptide 1 (ESP1)

is a sex pheromone that is released in male mouse tear fluids and enhances female sexual receptive behavior.

Neurosecretory cells

(found in the insect brain)

Secrete prothoracicotropic hormone

Activates prothoracic glands to secrete ecdysone

juvenile hormone

Stimulates endocrine gland to secrete a juvenile hormone

Adrenaline and Noradrenaline

- Secreted by adrenal medulla - Initiates response to stress - Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolic rate

Glucocorticoids

- Secreted by adrenal cortex - Makes the body adapt to long term stress

Mineralocorticoids

- Secreted by adrenal cortex - Maintains the balance of sodium and and potassium ion excretion in cells

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, Stimulates the secretion of adrenal cortical hormones

Cortisol in humans

- Increases glucose in the bloodstream - Enhances brain's use of glucose - Increases the availability of substances that repair tissues

Corticosterone in other vertebrates

Has an important function in metabolism, stress, and adaptation.

Fight or Flight Response

- Increased blood pressure - Increased glucose in the blood stream - Increased heart and respiratory rate - Body is under stress to trigger lifesaving natural instinct - Minimizes some of the organs’ functions - Immune system, sex cell development, digestion, etc.

Insulin

Secreted by pancreas. Stimulates fat, protein, glycogen synthesis. Lowers blood glucose level

Glucagon

Secreted by pancreas. Raises blood glucose levels. Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen

Estrogen

- Secreted by ovaries - Stimulates the development of female secondary sex traits

Progesterone

- Secreted by ovaries - Stimulates the development of mammary glands - Completes the preparation for pregnancy

Testosterone

- Secreted by testis - Stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics - Also stimulates rapid growth at puberty

Melatonin

- Secreted by pineal gland - Regulates biological rhythms

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

- Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates spermatogenesis - Stimulates the development of the ovarian follicles

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

- Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates the secretion of testosterone, for sperm production and for the development of the male secondary sex characteristics - Stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone for ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum in females

Growth Hormone (GH)

- Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates fat breakdown, muscle and bone growth - Also stimulates protein synthesis that results in overall body growth

Thyroid stimulating Hormone (TSH)

- Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine - Regulates metabolism in the body through “chemical homeostasis” - Body temperature, skin moisture, levels of ions, etc.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

- Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland - Elevates calcium level in the blood by stimulating bone breakdown - Stimulates calcium re absorption in the kidneys and activates vitamin D

Parathormone

- Secreted by parathyroid glands - Raises the calcium level in the blood

Prolactin

- Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates the mammary gland to produce milk

Oxytocin

- Secreted by posterior pituitary gland - Targets the uterus which brings uterine contractions during child birth - Regulates the mammary glands for milk ejection