Social Research Methods

Researcher collects data themselves.

Researcher uses data that has already been collected by other people.

Questionnaires, interviews, focus groups.

Personal documents such as letters and diaries, official statistics or existing sociological research.

Issues that have a physical impact on whether a researcher is able to carry out a research project.

Access, Cost and Time, Skills of the Researcher, Social Profile of the Researcher, Issues of literacy, Choice of research topic.

How the researcher can reach and communicate with the target population.

The group of people that the researcher is interested in studying.

A person who can control access to the target population. They can help a researcher to access 'hard to reach' groups.

How much the research task will cost and how long it will have to be carried out for.

Characteristics of the person carrying out the research - E.g. Gender/age/class/ethnicity.

The researchers specific skills that may be needed to carry out specific studies - E.g. Questionnaires require less skill than interviews.

The topic the researcher is interested in studying, usually based on current issues, or the researchers own interests.

Some participants may have difficulty understanding/answering questions the researcher is asking.

the moral concerns related to the research like whether participants or the researcher are likely to be harmed. The British Sociological Association has strict guidelines on social research to determine if it is ethical or not that sociologists must comply with.

Sensitivity, Anonymity, Deception, Right to Withdraw, Informed Consent, Confidentiality and Privacy, Protection from Harm

Participants are unaware or misled about the aims of the study.

Participants should be given the choice to take part in the study at the beginning, after being told all relevant aspects of the research process.

The identity of participants should not be made known to anybody, including the researcher.

Personal information about participants should not be released for the public to see/modified so that an individuals identity cannot be identified by the public.

All participants need to be made aware that they have a right to withdraw their consent to take part in the study at any time (before, during or after the research has taken place).

Researchers need to be aware of possible negative effects on a participants and their own mental/physical health.

Researchers need to be aware that some topics they may wish to study could touch on difficult aspects of a participants life. The participant should not be put under pressure to answer any questions.

Prefer quantitative research methods and quantitative data.

Prefer qualitative research methods and qualitative data.

Data based on numbers and statistics. Can be easily made into graphs to analyse for trends or patterns.

Data based on words and opinions. Could be interpreted in different ways depending on the researcher's own views.

Positivists prefer these methods. E.g. Questionnaires, Structured Interviews, Longitudinal Studies.

Interpretivists prefer these methods. E.g. Unstructured Interviews, Semi-Structured Interviews, Focus Groups, Ethnography, Observations.

Like to use both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Want to use the most suitable methods for their research project that are 'fit for purpose'.

Another way of saying using both quantitative research methods and qualitative research methods to get the benefits of positivism and interpretivism.

When realists compare, integrate and interpret the results from their different methods.

Concerns relating to the theoretical perspective a sociologist has, for example, if they want to collect quantitative data or qualitative data. Positivists and interpretivists will value different theoretical issues.

Standardisation, Reliability, Representativeness, Generalisability, Objectivity, Validity, Verstehen, Going native (lowers validity), Researcher bias (lowers validity), Social desirability (lowers validity).

Procedures used are kept the same. For example, asking all participants the exact same questions in a questionnaire or structured interview. (Important for positivists).

Easy for another researcher to repeat the study exactly and check to see if they get the same results. This can only happen if research is standardised. (Important for positivists).

When the data is true to life. So the data reflects what life is actually like for the social group being studied. Easier to do this with rich, detailed data (Important for interpretivists).

Being able to see through the eyes of the social group being studied. Can only do this with rich, detailed data. (Important for interpretivists).

When large samples are used and the characteristics of people in the sample are similar to people in the wider target population. (Important for positivists).

What the researcher finds out about in the data they collect from their sample can then be applied to the whole target population. (Important for positivists).

When the researcher's own views and opinions do not impact the data they collect. (Important for positivists).

When the researcher's own views and opinions impact the data they collect. This can be a problem in interpretivist/ qualitative research methods.

Social laws that control our behaviour that can be observed by sociologists. E.g. areas with high poverty rates have higher crime rates (Important for positivists).

A list of questions that participants read and answer themselves. It can be on paper or online.

Quantitative data through the use of closed questions. Researcher may add one or two open questions to produce some qualitative data too.

In questionnaires, participants are known as this as they answer the questions themselves.

There are only a limited amount of answers a participant can choose from for these questions. E.g. Multiple choice, yes or no.

The participant can answer questions in as much detail as they want in these questions.

Census, CSEW (could also use Jackson, Venkatesh, Barker).

Structured; Semi-Structured; Unstructured.

When a researcher has a fixed set of closed questions that they ask and record participants' answers to. Often participants choose from multiple choice answers.

Face to face but could take place online or by telephone.

CSEW, Born in Bradford.

A large-scale quantitative study where data is usually collected by means of questionnaires and/or structured interviews.

Only the CSEW and Census due to their large scale.

Collects data from the same sample of people on at least two occasions but usually more, over a significant period of time. Often use a combination of questionnaires and interviews. Usually quantitative data is collected but sometimes qualitative data is collected too.

Born in Bradford, Farrington (Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development)

Discussion between a researcher and participants with no set questions that flows like a conversation. The interviewer may bring a written list of topics they wish to cover to help them.

Willis, Sharpe, Dobash and Dobash.

A researcher will have some pre-planned questions but can also discuss any other relevant issues as they arise. Probing questions are used by the interviewer.

Used to encourage interviewees to develop their answers or explore certain ideas. Used in semi-structured interviews and unstructured interviews. Interviewer must think of these on the spot.

Jackson, Farrington, Archer, 'That's What She Said' Report on Lad Culture.

The researcher acts as a facilitator who encourages a group to have a discussion on a particular topic. The researcher ensures the discussion remains on the relevant topic and takes notes of what is said. The group environment should feel more natural than a one to one interview.

Archer, 'That's What She Said' Report on Lad Culture, Born in Bradford, Willis.

An in-depth study of "the way of life" of a particular group. This usually takes place over several months or years and the researcher may even live amongst the group they are studying. Focus on the day-to-day life and activities that people take part in.

Researcher tries not to make judgements about what they see and remain objective. However, this is very difficult to do in practice, particularly in methods where the researcher is actively involved like an ethnography

This can be a real problem in ethnographies. It means becoming too sympathetic with the group you are studying. For example, ignoring or understating negative aspects of their behaviour or attitudes.

Willis, Venkatesh, Barker, Humphreys, MacIntyre.

When a group of participants are not aware that they are being observed.

When a group of participants knows they are being observed and the purpose of the observation.

When participants change their behaviour because they are aware they are being studied. This happens in overt observations (and ethnographies).

When the researcher is takes part in the activities of the group they are are observing. They may not be involved in all activities but are often involved in some way. All the observation studies we have looked at are participant observation.

When the researcher studies a group but only observes them. They are not involved in the group's activities. For example, when an OFSTED inspector observes a lesson.

Humphries, MacIntyre.

Willis, Venkatesh, Barker.

A small proportion of the target population that will be studied.

A list of everyone in the target population.

Aim to select a sample that accurately represents the social group that is being studied. Enables researchers to take large groups and make generalisations from the sample to the target population. Favoured by positivists.

Aim to select a sample that is most likely to give the researcher the information they are looking for. Enables researchers to select a small sample of people who can provide detailed information on the research topic, leading to more in-depth, valid data. Favoured by interpretivists.

Simple random sampling, Stratified sampling, Systematic sampling, Quota sampling.

Snowball sampling, Volunteer sampling, Purposive sampling, Opportunity sampling.

Each member of the target population has an equal chance of being picked. This is like taking names out of a hat but is usually done using a computer program

The population is divided into known criteria or strata. People are then selected randomly from these strata.

Also known as systematic random sampling. This is a systematic approach to selecting participants, e.g. every 10th name on a list is chosen or every 5th house on a street, etc.

Researchers select a specific quota of individuals that they wish to study. A researcher will calculate how many people from each group are needed. They will then select individuals and then approach these people who match the criteria until the 'quota' is filled.

The researcher will access one member of the population/social group that they wish to study and ask them to refer them onto another possible contact and so on. This person is called a gatekeeper.

People are invited to put themselves forward for the research, usually via an advert. Often used when no sampling frame exists

The researcher decides what needs to be known and sets out to find people who can (and are willing) to provide the information due to their knowledge or experience. The deliberate choice of a participant due to the qualities the participant possesses.

The researcher looks to find members of the target population that meet certain practical criteria, such as easy accessibility or the willingness to participate. Often used by students who lack the time and resources that professional researchers may have.

Humphries (purposive); Venkatesh (snowball); CSEW (random); Born in Bradford (quota); Willis (purposive); Archer (stratified).

Documents, Official statistics, Other sociological research.

Documents - Hey, MacIntyre

Official Statistics - ONS, CSEW

Other sociological research - Cohen, Thornton, Wilkinson and Pickett

Any items that relate to some aspect of the social world. It may be in the form of text, sound or image. For example: Personal documents (diaries, letters, electronic data such as audio and video recordings, family trees), Newspaper reports, Novels and other works of fiction.

Data collected by government departments and agencies

Research that sociologists have carried out before

Introduction, Operationalising the concept, Justification of the Method, Sampling, Access, Objectivity, Ethics.

When a participant gives an answer that isn't true that they think is a more socially acceptable response compared to what they really think.

When the researcher is able to build a positive relationship with the participant in their study. This can lead to more valid data as they may answer more honestly and act more naturally. It is related to sensitivity.