Linguagem e Comunicação

A sign where meaning is based upon the similarity of appearance

regards a ‘cause and effect’ between the sign and its meaning. Smoke is a ? of fire.

there is an arbitrary or conventional link. Usually words and numbers are in this category. Saying what something is because it is what it is.

involves explaining a word’s meaning with words in the same language.

It is the type of translation you would find in a language dictionary. This type of translation explains the meaning of a particular word for speakers who either don’t or only partially understand the language.

It involves translating a text from one format to another. Here’s a straightforward example: transposing a book into a film

When performing this type of translation, translators must make rational and conscious choices to identify a text’s key elements and how they should be transposed into the target medium while remaining faithful to the original format.

When we talk about “translation” in general, without specifying the type of translation, we almost always mean this type of translation.

It allows speakers of different languages to communicate

A word or expression which takes some element of its meaning from the context or situation. (Personal, spatial, temporal, discourse)

I, you, he, she, they

Here, there, that, this, left, right, come, go, bring, take

Now, today, tomorrow, then, verb tense

Adverbs and connectives

• refers to a set of words that share a common linguistic feature, often in terms of grammatical form or syntactic structure.

• In linguistics, it can be seen in verb conjugations, noun declensions, or other inflections where different forms of a word are systematically related.

• Types include binary, scalar and multiple

They system and rules that allow us to communicate (vocubulary, grammar and syntax)

• It is the manifestation of langue in real-life communication.

• the individual act of speaking or writing. It involves the choices made by a speaker or writer in selecting and arranging words according to the rules of langue. Each act is a unique expression influenced by individual creativity, context, and intention.

One word which has several meanings and have relation, for example star and film star both being called star.

when there is uncertainty or imprecision in communication due to a concept not being well defined. What is tall? what is bald? they’re relative concepts. penumbra = grey area

its original figurative meaning is no longer apparent to most people. Over time, where their figurative sense has become integrated into the standard meaning of the words. Eg, chair leg

Continuing the metaphor through a text to emphasise what the metaphor is trying to express.

A new metaphor or a new figure of speech to describe something.

when a new (living metaphor) has come from an older metaphor, it is based on the figure of speech which already existed.

In the context of metaphors, this refers to the prominence or attention-grabbing nature of metaphorical expressions within language. Metaphors often involve comparing one concept to another, and this can influence how effectively it communicates a particular idea.

When a word's meaning becomes more inclusive or general than its original sense. This expansion in meaning often involves the word coming to represent a broader category or a wider range of referents. (generalisation)

vs

when a word's meaning becomes more restricted or specialized than its original sense. The word comes to represent a subset of its original meaning or a more specific category.

we mean that a word broadens its meaning by encompassing a wider range of referents that are in some way related or approximate to the original sense. In this case, the broadening involves a degree of loosening or fuzziness in the application of the term.

The meaning of a word expands to include members of a broader category than its original narrow sense. It's a process through which a word, initially associated with a specific subset of a category, comes to represent the entire category or a more extensive range of referents.

overexaggeration

A way of describing something by saying something is something it realistically is not

Refers to the speaker's intended communicative purpose or the function of an utterance within a given context. In speech act theory, it represents the intended force or effect of an utterance, beyond its literal meaning.

The speaker aims to convey information or make a statement about the world. Examples include stating facts, describing events, or expressing beliefs.

• Example: "The sun rises in the east."

The speaker intends to get the listener to do something. often take the form of commands, requests, or suggestions.

• Example: "Please close the door."

The speaker commits to a future course of action. This involves expressing promises, pledges, or assurances. (future tense is an indicator)

• Example: "I will meet you at the airport."

The speaker expresses personal feelings, attitudes, or emotions. This illocutionary force involves conveying the speaker's mental state.

• Example: "I'm so happy for you!"

The speaker brings about a change in the external world simply by making the utterance. they are performative and can include pronouncements, declarations of war, or the act of christening a ship.

• Example: "I now pronounce you husband and wife."

• Involve a clear and explicit expression of the speaker's communicative intention. The speaker's intention is directly stated and easily recognizable in the form of the utterance. Aligns closely with the literal meaning of the words used.

• Example of a Directive (Command):

  • Utterance: "Close the door."

  • Illocutionary Force: The speaker's intention is explicitly to command or instruct the listener to close the door.

• Example of an Assertive (Statement):

  • Utterance: "It is raining outside."

  • Illocutionary Force: The speaker's intention is to convey information about the weather, as an assertive statement.

• involve a more nuanced or subtle expression of the speaker's communicative intention. The illocutionary force may be conveyed through implied meaning, context, or pragmatic cues. The speaker's intention is not explicitly stated and may require the listener to infer or interpret the intended force.

• Example of a Directive (Request):

  • Utterance: "Could you pass me the salt?"

  • Illocutionary Force: The speaker's intention is to make a request for the salt, but the request is conveyed through the use of politeness and the modal "could."

• Example of an Assertive (Suggestion):

  • Utterance: "It might be a good idea to start early."

  • Illocutionary Force: The speaker's intention is to suggest or recommend starting early, but the suggestion is conveyed through the use of modality ("might be a good idea").

• Example (Directive - Request - Secondary Illocutionary Act):

  • Utterance: "Could you close the door?"

  • Primary Illocutionary Force: The primary intention is to make a request for the door to be closed.

  • Secondary Illocutionary Act: The use of "Could you" adds a level of politeness or indirectness to the request.

• Example (Expressive - Excuse - Secondary Illocutionary Act):

  • Utterance: "I'm sorry, but I forgot your birthday."

  • Primary Illocutionary Force: The primary intention is to express an apology for forgetting the listener's birthday.

  • Secondary Illocutionary Act: The use of "but" may serve as a mitigating element, offering an excuse or explanation for the forgetfulness.

Phonetic: the act of producing sounds belonging to a language

Phatic: the act of forming an utterance according to the rules of grammar (expression)

Emotive function (a função emotiva)

helps us to interpret emotions, feelings and desires

Referential function (a função referencial)

regards context, showing things or facts

Poetic function (a função poética)

focuses on the message as well as the way the message is communicated (flowery language)

Conative function (a função conativa)

aims to get the attention or a reaction from the receiver

Phatic function (a função fática)

establishes or develops a social connection without communicating ideas

Metalinguistic function (a função metalinguística)

uses language to speak about language, usually to clarify ambiguity

helps us to interpret emotions, feelings and desires

regards context, showing things or facts

focuses on the message and the way the messaged is portrayed

aims to get attention or receive a reaction from the reader

establishes a social connection without communicating actual ideas

eg ‘you alright?’

use language to speak about language usually to clarify ambiguity

a concept in linguistics that refers to a type of meaning associated with specific lexical items or linguistic structures.

Lexical Items or Structures:

• is associated with specific words, phrases, or grammatical structures that carry extra meaning.

• The use of "but" implies a contrast or unexpected relationship

• adds subtlety and nuance to language use, providing speakers with a way to convey additional meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words.

context-specific and depends on the immediate circumstances. The listener uses their knowledge of the world and understanding of conversational norms to infer additional meaning beyond what is explicitly stated.

• Maxim: Be as informative as is needed, and no more.

• Implicature: If a speaker provides more information than is necessary, the listener may infer that there is a reason behind the additional information.

• Utterance: "Do you have any siblings?"

• The listener might expect the speaker to answer with the exact number of siblings, not providing too much or too little information.

• Maxim: Do not provide false or misleading information.

• Implicature: Listeners assume that speakers are truthful and are conveying accurate information.

• Utterance: "The car broke down because it's so old."

• The listener expects the speaker to provide a truthful explanation for the car breaking down, based on the assumption that the speaker is not intentionally providing false information.

• Maxim: Be relevant in what you say.

• Implicature: Listeners assume that speakers will provide information that is pertinent to the current topic or conversation.

• Utterance: "Speaking of pizza, have you seen my keys?"

• The listener might infer that the mention of pizza is not directly relevant to the question about keys, and there may be an implied connection or humorous intent.

• Maxim: Avoid ambiguity and be clear.

• Implicature: Listeners assume that speakers will use clear and unambiguous language, avoiding unnecessary complexity or vagueness.

• Utterance: "The answer is as clear as mud."

• The listener might infer that the speaker is using figurative language to convey that the answer is not clear at all.

• avoid obscurity, ambiguity and be brief and orderely

• Definition: refers to the process of filling in or specifying the meaning of an expression by adding specific information that is contextually relevant.

• Function: occurs when a linguistic expression, such as a pronoun or a vague term, is enriched with specific details from the context to make its meaning more explicit and precise.

• Example:

  • Utterance: "He is happy."

  • example: The pronoun "he" is includes information from the context, such as the identity of the person referred to (e.g., John), making the meaning more specific.

• Definition: involves a shift or adjustment in the standard meaning of an expression based on contextual factors or pragmatic considerations.

• Function: occurs when the interpretation of an expression is influenced or adjusted by contextual cues, speaker intentions, or the overall pragmatic context.

• Example:

  • Utterance: "She is a genius."

  • example: The term "genius" might be ? based on the context. If the context is a casual conversation, the term might be used loosely to express admiration, rather than in a strictly technical or formal sense.

• words that fall under a more general category or have a broader meaning.

• one word represents a specific instance or type of another word. For example, "rose" is a type of "flower" because a rose is a type of flower.

• words that represent a more general category or have a broader meaning than their hyponyms.

• one word encompasses a broader set of concepts. Using the previous example, "flower" is a b roader term of "rose" because it includes a broader category of flowers that encompasses roses.