History of Western Civilization - FINAL

500

Early Middle Ages

1000

High Middle Ages

1300

Late Middle Ages

1450

Similarities:

• Preserved Greek and Roman litterature

• Both embraced christianity (more in the Byzantine Empire)

• Remained wealthiest (East-West trade link)

• Basis European legal system

Differences:

• Greek language became the common and official language

• Geographic extent: Byzantine Empire consists of the Eastern part of the former Roman Empire (smaller)

• Eastern orthodox Church

• Emperor had authority over church

Belief in one God, known as Allah, and the acceptance of Muhammad as his Prophet

Adherence to the Five Pillars of Islam:

• Shahada (declaration of faith)

• Salat (prayer)

• Zakat (charity)

• Sawm (fasting during Ramadan)

• and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

Arabian Peninsula

• Syria

• Egypt

• Persia

• North Africa

• Parts of Spain

1. Reinforced the idea of an enduring Roman Empire and Greek world

2. Support from the papacy: crowned by Pope Leo lll

3. Fusion of cultures: fusion of Roman, Christian and Germanic elements in Charlemagne’s Empire played a role in the emergence of a unique European civilization

• North Sea in the North

• Italy in the South

• France in Western Europe

• Vienna in Central Europe

• more widespread use of iron tools

• cooperative agricultural villages

• harnessing of wind & water power

• 3-field rotation system

• sharp population growth

• clearance of new fields

• more wealth to invest

• revival of trade - commercial revolution

• more wealth to invest

• more secure roads

• less workers needed on farms

• attraction of freedom in towns

• Italy

• Towns in Flanders

• France (Towns in the Champagne Valley)

• Guilds of students (scholastism)

• Revival of classical antiquity (the study of ancient Greece and Roman law)

• Romanesque and Gothic architecture

• Population decline (death 25-50% European population)

• Labor shortage

• Pesant Revolts

• belief in a punishment from G od

• widespread anti-Semitism & pogroms

• concern with death in art & literature

Causes:

• Disputes over territorial claims between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France (french throne)

Victorious Kingdom:

• France (French victory at the Battle of Castillon in 1453)

England:

• Economic Drain: The war proved financially burdensome for England, draining its resources significantly.

• Decline in the English monarchy's authority and power = instability.

• Internal Instability - resulting in a series of civil wars

• Weakened England's control and influence on the continent.

France:

• Political Turmoil: political chaos (challenges due to King Charles VI's insanity) - rival noble factions vying for control.

• Civil Strife: Rival factions competed for power = internal conflict and civil wars.

• Weakened Authority: fragmented control and the influence of rival factions.

• Victory: retaining control over its territories

• National Unity and Identity

1. It had preserved many classical texts and works from the classical period

2. Located near many different cultures = facilitated exchange of knowledge

1. Economic Recovery: trade and manufacturing increase (expansion of trade routes)

2. Expansion of Trade: Italian merchants expanded their trade routes both within the Mediterranean and along the Atlantic seaboard

3. Development of New Industries: Printing, mining, and metallurgy also became more significant.

4. Banking and the Medici Family

5. Social Changes: Nobility, which remained dominant but faced economic changes + growth of the bourgeoisie + rise in urban poverty

1. Major Powers + Independant city-states:

   Duchy of Milan

   Venice

   Florence

   Papal States

   Kingdom of Naples

2. Foreign Invasions: The political stability of the Italian states was threatened by foreign invasions.

3. Oligarchic Republic

4. Political Rivalries: There were ongoing power struggles among prominent families

5. Medici Family Dominance

6. Cultural Renaissance: advancements in arts, literature, and intellectual pursuits.

7. Medici's financial influence = control and manipulate the government

8. Rival factions often clashed, = outbreaks of violence and instability

9. Medici Patronage: contributed to Florence's cultural growth during this period.

1. Realism Not Idealism: He focused on reality, not idealistic views

2. Morality Separate: He separated morality from politics

3. Pragmatic Actions: Emphasized practicality over morals

4. Understanding Power: Stressed knowing power dynamics

5. Fear over Love: Advocated being feared over being loved

Intellectual movement that focused on the study of classical literary works of Greece and Rome

Involved (based on Greek and Roman authors):

• grammar

• rhetoric

• poetry

• moral philosophy

• history

1. Neoplatonism:

   • hierarchy of substance - from physical matter to purest form, God.

   • Humans are in a central position, connecting the material and spiritual

   • Goal: Ascend to unite with God.

2. Hermeticism:

   • Humans were made divine and can regain divinity

   • Through a regenerative experience and by acquiring knowledge of God and truth

• Produce individuals who followed a path of virtue and wisdom

• Aimed to prepare complete citizens with the rhetorical skills to persuade others to do the same.

Humanist schools focused on study of liberal studies:

• history

• moral philosophy

• eloquence (rhetoric)

• letters (grammar and logic)

• poetry

• mathematics

• astronomy

• music

• physical education

  Combined the classics and Christianity

• Facilitated the development of scholarly research

• Standardized and definitive texts

• Spread of knowledge

  Rising literacy rates and the development of a lay reading public = spread of new ideas

Technique:

Naturalism: Imitating and representing nature. perspective, light and shadow, and anatomical accuracy

Monumental Figures = more lifelike relationship between figures and their surroundings.

Mathematical Precision: perfecting the laws of perspective, geometric organization of outdoor spaces, and the use of perspective = 3D

Style:

Realism: realistic portrayal of the human body, landscape, and objects

Idealization of nature: ideal beauty = influence of Neoplatonism.

Balance and Harmony

Emotional Intensity: used meticulous attention to detail to create emotional depth.

Themes:

Human Centered

Christian Themes

Mythological and Classical Themes

Empirical Observation

1. Emphasis on externa forces of religion (sacrements, pilgrimages, fasts, etc.)

2. The clergy's abuses, corruption, and their preoccupation with finances

3. Sale of indulgences

4. Clergy is lacking in spiritual guidance and wisdom.

Sale of indulgences: Believed it did not insure salvation

Parts of Germany (especially in the territories ruled by sympathetic German princes and rulers)

Saxony

German rulers were granted the right to determine the religion of their subjects.

End of religious warfare

Fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire

• Henry VIII's Divorce: Henry asked the Pope to divorce Catherine; Pope refused.

• Henry Breaks Away: In 1534, Henry broke from the Pope - made his own church (became boss through the Act of Supremacy)

• Archbishop's Decision: Archbishop Cranmer approved Henry's marriage to Anne, declaring his marriage to Catherine invalid.

• Edward VI's Changes: Henry's son, Edward, made England more Protestant, allowing priests to marry and changing church practices.

• Elizabeth I's Rule: Elizabeth I made England fully Protestant, separating the Church of England from Catholicism permanently.

• Key protestant leader

• Published "The Institutes of the Christian Religion" in 1536, establishing himself in Protestantism

• Preached God's absolute sovereignty

• Reformed Geneva

• Geneva became a vibrant hub of Protestantism under Calvin

• Missionaries from Geneva spread Calvinism across parts of Europe, replacing Lutheranism

1. New religious orders and brotherhoods (ex: Jesuites - society of jesus)

2. Reformed the Papacy

3. Creation of the council of Trent

1. Money & Trade: Wanted spices and riches like gold.

2. Religion: Spread Catholic faith to new places.

3. How they did it:

   • Strong Kings: Powerful kings had more resources.

   • Better Ships: New ships and tools helped them sail longer.

Portuguese & Spanish:

• Found an old map, thought they could sail around the world.

• Exploration under Prince Henry the Navigator: Seeking Christian allies, trade opportunities, and spreading Christianity.

• Voyages of Exploration: Down the African coast; Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope; Da Gama reached India.

• Establishment of Commercial-Military Bases: Albuquerque set up bases in India; Goa became the headquarters.

Focused on trade, military bases, and monopolizing the spice trade.

• Christopher Columbus: Sailed westward, discovered the Americas.

• Subsequent Explorations: Cabot, Vespucci, Magellan's circumnavigation; Pizarro's conquest of Inca.

Emphasized conquest, exploitation, and establishing administrative structures in conquered territories.

• Slave Source: Initially, African slaves replaced European slaves; later, slaves were taken directly from Africa.

• Trade Route: Formed part of the triangular trade: European manufactured goods to Africa, exchanged for slaves sent to the Americas, and commodities from the Americas back to Europe.

• Transport: African slaves were shipped in crowded, unsanitary conditions in cargo ships during the Middle Passage.

• Demographic: Depopulation (loss of young and strong men and women)

• Economic: Undermined local industries with the influx of cheap European goods, leading to poverty.

• Escalated warfare among African chiefs vying for slaves; increased violence and conflicts

Conquered:

• Americas: losing population to diseases; societal and political upheaval; adopting European institutions, culture, and religion.

• Africa: expanded due to slave trade = vulnerability to European control

• Asia: Limited impact on China and Japan; India faced increased British intrusion

Conquerors:

• Acquire land, wealth, and social status abroad

• Exploitation of rich silver deposits significantly affected the Spanish economy.

• Exchange of plants and animals between the Old and New Worlds; introduction of new foods and drinks in Europe

• Nations aimed to amass precious metals (gold and silver) by exporting more than importing, ensuring a favorable balance of trade.

• Colonies existed to provide raw materials and markets for the mother country, fostering self-sufficiency and economic dominance.

• Governments sought to control trade, creating colonies as exclusive markets for the home country and limiting competition.

monarchy: rule by a king

absolute: king has complete authority

based on the “divine right of kings”

• kings receive their power from God

  → kings are responsible only to God

  → power of the king has no limit

• make laws

• taxes

• administer the State

• administer justice

• foreign policy

Restored peace after wars of religion:

• increased royal revenue

• improved the infrastructure (roads, bridges...)

Personal Rule: He controlled everything, dominating ministers and making key decisions himself.

Engaged in wars for glory, supported economic growth via mercantilist policies.

Louis' reign showcased absolute control over governance, religion, military, and the courtly lifestyle

1. Limited Control over Nobility: High nobles retained significant power and influence in their regions

2. Resilient Provincial Powers: Provinces had their own courts, laws, and privileges, resisting complete subjugation to the central government.

3. Religious Constraints: While Louis controlled religious policies, his anti-Protestant stance led to significant social unrest, such as the persecution of Huguenots

1. Clash of Beliefs: The Stuart monarchs, like James I and Charles I, asserted the divine right of kings, advocating absolute monarchy. This view clashed with Parliament's belief in a balanced polity where both king and Parliament shared governance.

2. Religious Differences: Disagreements over religious policies aggravated tensions. The monarchy's insistence on enforcing Anglican practices, contrary to the Puritans' desire for a Presbyterian model, intensified the conflict.

3. Power Struggles: Parliament's resistance to arbitrary royal power led to disputes, particularly concerning the king's right to levy taxes without Parliament's consent. The struggle intensified as Parliament used its power of the purse to challenge the king's authority.

4. Personal Rule: Charles I's decision to rule without Parliament for over a decade (1629-1640) further aggravated the situation, as it denied the representatives' involvement in decision-making and taxation.

1. Bill of Rights (1689): Established Parliament's power to make laws and levy taxes.

2. Limited Royal Authority: Prohibited standing armies without Parliament's consent.

3. Citizens' Rights: Ensured the right to petition, bear arms, have a jury trial, and avoid excessive bail.

4. Religious Freedom: Granted Puritan Dissenters the right to free public worship, excluding Catholics.

1. Limitation of Royal Power: It restricted the monarch's authority, ensuring that standing armies couldn't be raised without Parliament's consent.

2. Empowerment of Parliament: Affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes, establishing its pivotal role in the governance structure.

3. Protection of Citizens' Rights: Guaranteed fundamental rights such as petitioning the sovereign, possessing arms, having a jury trial, and avoiding excessive bail.

4. Religious Freedom: Granted some religious tolerance by allowing Puritan Dissenters the right to free public worship, although Catholics were still excluded.

1. Old Authorities: Scholars relied on ancient thinkers like Aristotle and Galen, limiting their exploration.

2. Logic First: Middle Age thinkers preferred logic over real observations of nature.

3. Renaissance Rediscovery: Renaissance scholars found new ancient texts, revealing contradictions in old beliefs.

4. Art's Impact: Artists' detailed observations of nature influenced scientific study standards.

5. Tech and Instruments: Inventions like the telescope expanded scientific discoveries.

6. Mathematics' Rise: Math became key for understanding the universe.

7. Magic's Influence: Some believe Renaissance magic spurred the desire to control nature, impacting scientific thought.

8. Intellectual Shift: The Scientific Revolution stemmed from a few great thinkers who challenged old beliefs and sought new explanations.

1. Copernicus:

   • Proposed the heliocentric (sun-centered) model, countering the geocentric (earth-centered) view.

   • Introduced the idea that planets, including Earth, revolved around the sun.

2. Kepler:

   • Discovered the elliptical orbits of planets, contrary to circular paths.

   • Established laws of planetary motion, confirming Copernicus's heliocentric theory.

3. Galileo:

   • First to observe celestial bodies through a telescope.

   • Made crucial discoveries like moons orbiting Jupiter, mountains on the moon, and sunspots.

   • Proved that celestial bodies were made of material substance like Earth, challenging the ethereal concept.

4. Newton:

   • Formulated the laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation.

   • Explained how celestial bodies move in elliptical orbits around the sun due to gravitational forces.

   • Established a mechanistic view of the universe operating based on natural laws, transforming the modern worldview until Einstein's theory of relativity in the 20th century.

1. Margaret Cavendish:

   • 17th-century scientist.

   • Wrote about science but not widely accepted.

   • Criticized the idea that humans control nature.

2. Maria Winkelmann:

   • German astronomer.

   • Discovered a comet but faced discrimination.

   • Denied a job because she was a woman.

3. Women in Science:

   • Few had access to education.

   • Male societies didn't accept women.

   • Science didn't change views about women.

Spread of Scientific Ideas:

1. Scientific Learning Grew:

   • Universities created science chairs.

   • Royals supported scientists internationally.

2. Scientific Method:

   • Bacon introduced a method based on observation and experiments.

   • Descartes focused on deduction and mathematical logic.

   • Newton merged both methods for systematic observations and experiments.

3. Scientific Societies:

   • English Royal Society (1662) and French Royal Academy (1666) formed.

   • Initially practical, they later focused on theoretical work.

Impact on Society:

1. Science and Elites:

   • Elites found science useful for profit and prestige.

   • Separation grew between high and popular cultures.

2. Science and Rulers:

   • Kings supported science for military applications.

   • Rulers controlled scientific knowledge.

Impact on Religion:

1. Conflict with Religion:

   • Galileo's clash with the Church began science vs. religion.

   • Science challenged religious interpretations.

2. Attempts at Harmony:

   • Pascal sought unity between reason and religion.

   • Believed in balancing reason and faith.

   • Emphasized God's care despite the fear of the unknown in the scientific world

1. Scientific Revolution Influence:

• advocate reason and apply the scientific method

Diffusion of Scientific Knowledge:

• knowledge

Rise of Skepticism and Secularization:

• skepticism of religious ideals = more secular

Impact of Travel Literature:

• Exploration reports introduced different cultures and ways of life.

Classifications and Racial Views:

• Growing exposure to diverse cultures led to the classification of racial groups = biased perceptions about racial hierarchy.

Legacy of Newton and Locke:

1. Separation of Powers:

   • dividing government power into separate branches—legislative, executive, and judicial. prevent tyranny

2. Comparative Study of Governments:

   • categorizing governments into republics, monarchies, and despotism

1. Religious Tolerance and Criticism:

   • Voltaire strongly advocated for religious tolerance and criticized religious fanaticism, superstition, and intolerance. His writings and activism aimed to combat religious oppression and promote intellectual freedom.

2. Deism and Skepticism:

   • He endorsed deism, a belief in a distant, non-interventionist deity, echoing the Newtonian view of the universe as a well-ordered system. His skepticism about organized religion and emphasis on reason influenced other philosophes.

applying Newton's scientific methods to discover the natural laws governing human behavior and society, which aimed to explore and comprehend human actions = "science of man."

Their pursuit involved understanding social, political, and economic phenomena through reasoned analysis.

Challenged mercantilism. They advocated laissez-faire economics, minimized government intervention in the economy, promoting the economic liberty of individuals.

1. Mary Astell:

   • In "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies," Astell advocated for improved education for women. She argued that women were as capable of learning as men and deserved equal educational opportunities. This suggestion aimed to challenge the prevailing notion of women's inferiority in intellectual pursuits.

2. Mary Wollstonecraft:

   • Wollstonecraft, in "Vindication of the Rights of Woman," made a bold statement for women's rights. She highlighted contradictions in Enlightenment thinkers' views on women's subjection, arguing that women, endowed with reason, deserved equal rights to men in education, economic pursuits, and political life. Wollstonecraft advocated for women's equal participation and rights in society.

1. Salons:

   • Salons were elegant gatherings hosted by wealthy individuals, often women, where intellectuals, including philosophes, artists, aristocrats, and government officials, engaged in lively discussions about Enlightenment ideas. These gatherings offered a platform for exchanging ideas, influencing political opinions, and fostering social interaction across societal strata.

2. Coffeehouses and Gathering Places:

   • Coffeehouses, cafés, reading clubs, and public libraries were additional spaces where Enlightenment ideas were exchanged. These venues facilitated intellectual discussions and became hubs for sharing and debating philosophical and political concepts.

3. Secret Societies like Freemasons:

   • Secret societies like the Freemasons were sympathetic to Enlightenment ideals and played a role in spreading these ideas. Freemasons provided a clandestine environment where philosophes and like-minded individuals could discuss and propagate their beliefs without overt censorship.

• First Estate: Clergy, exempt from taxes, owned 10% of land.

• Second Estate: Nobility, owned 30% of land, held key positions.

• Third Estate: Majority - peasants (75-80%), urban workers, bourgeoisie (middle class). They faced economic hardships, excluded from privileges, and shared Enlightenment ideas.

• Disagreement over voting methods:

  • Third Estate demanded voting by head (each delegate having one vote).

  • First and Second Estates preferred traditional voting by order, maintaining aristocratic control.

• Led to the formation of the National Assembly by the Third Estate.

• Marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

• Collapse of royal authority and the start of significant changes.

• Establishment of the National Assembly by the Third Estate.

• Tennis Court Oath taken, vowing to create a French constitution.

• Symbolized the start of the Revolution and the breakdown of royal power.

• Adopted on August 26, 1789, by the National Assembly.

• Proclaimed fundamental liberties: natural rights, equality, freedom of speech, press.

• Ended aristocratic privileges, aimed at creating a constitutional government.

• Set the stage for major political and social changes during the Revolution.

1. End of Monarchy: The National Convention abolished the monarchy, establishing a republic in 1792.

2. King's Execution: King Louis XVI was executed in 1793, solidifying the Revolution's break from the old regime.

3. External and Internal Threats: Foreign opposition and internal pressure from groups like the Paris Commune pushed for radical change.

4. Committee of Public Safety: Given extensive powers, this committee, led by Robespierre, aimed to manage crises and protect the Revolution.

5. Reign of Terror: The Committee enforced a period of severe repression, executing thousands to eliminate internal enemies.

6. Massive Army Mobilization: A huge revolutionary army was formed to counter foreign threats, involving citizens of all ages and classes in the war effort.

7. Social Changes: Efforts to reorganize society included economic controls, de-Christianization, and increased roles for women.

8. Abolition of Slavery: Driven by equality, slavery was abolished in French colonies in 1794.

9. Thermidorean Reaction: The overthrow of Robespierre in 1794 led to a shift to a more moderate approach and the establishment of the Directory in 1795.

• Napoleon & Revolution: Napoleon claimed to continue the French Revolution's good ideas, like fair laws and abolishing old systems.

• Preserved and Changed: He made some good laws (Civil Code) but also made things strict for certain groups, like women.

• Power Centralization: Napoleon got a lot of power and controlled everything, limiting freedom of the press and checking people's mail.

• Europe Impact: He tried to spread good ideas but accidentally made people angry, causing revolts and nationalist feelings.

• Downfall: Napoleon invaded Russia, lost, faced revolts across Europe, and was finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. He got exiled and died later.