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digestion
break down of organic matter into molecules used for extracting ATP and biomolecules
endoderm
gut tube of embryo
evolution of jaws
gill arches give support → gave rise to jaws
mouth open to pump H2O then grab prey
foregut
mouth → stomach
mouth
teeth and amylase (starch digesting enzyme)
esophagus
carries food to stomach
stomach
acidic digestion
gastrin
stimulates HCl production
pepsin
protease - breaks down proteins
midgut
small intestine and accessory organs
small intestine
nutrient digestion and absorption
liver
bile breaks down fats
gallbladder
holds bile
pancreas
makes trypsin, lipase, and bicarbonate ions
villi
increase surface area on intestinal cells
hindgut
processes undigested parts of food to be eliminated
large intestine
reabsorbs water
bulk transport
allows distribution of nutrient/oxygen and removal of waste
COPD
inflammation of airways
reduced O2 levels
hemoglobin
protein in blood cells
myoglobin
protein in body cells
open circulatory system
hemolymph bathes tissue
in insects and mollusks
closed circulatory system
blood circulates in vessels
artery
away from heart
veins
towards heart
capillaries
transitional tubes
genetic diseases
changes in DNA sequence lead to different protein functions
anemia
lack of good O2 transport
sickle cell
shape of red blood cells
malaria
protist
transmitted by mosquitos
infects blood and liver
reasons for sex
shuffle genes
variation
may survive better
bacteria
binary fission - asexual
some can acquire foreign DNA
fungi and protists
both asexual and sexual reproduction
haploid and diploid
pathenogeneiss
virgin birth - in some lizards
not clones
offspring always male
sex determination
chromosomal or environmental
somatic
body cells - mitosis, diploid
germ
reproductive cells - meiosis, haploid
sperm, eggs, pollen, spores
reductive division
one cell → four haploid cells
synapsis
homologous chromosome pair
recombination; crossing over
chromosomes exchange pieces
chiasmata
place where crossing over occurs
prophase I
homologous chromosome pair
metaphase I
pairs line up in middle
anaphase I
homologous chromosomes separate
telophase I
prepare for meiosis II
meiosis II
same as mitosis except -
no S phase between meiosis I and II
sister chromatids separate
capacitation
sperm is made ready by female tract
meiosis in females
begins during fetal development
eggs begin meiosis but pause during prophase I after recombination
after puberty, few eggs mature each menstrual cycle
one egg undergoes meiosis I
once fertilized, will undergo meiosis II
meiosis in males
begins at puberty and continues until death
occurs in spermatocytes - all complete meiosis
nondisjunction
chromosomes fail to separate - spindle malfunction
extra/missing chromosome
down syndrome
trisomy 21
causes low muscle tone, slanted eyes, and learning disabilities
early on-set Alhzeimer’s
XXX, XXXX
disjunction on sex chromosomes that causes variability in phenotype
Turner Syndrome
XO
develop as female
ovarian function impaired - usually infertile
Klinefelter Syndrome
XXY
reduced testosterone
develop as sterile males
Jacob’s Syndrome
XYY
1:1000 male births
taller than normal, speech issues
primary sex
determined by gonads
secondary sex
determined by other developmental and pubertal characteristics
SRY
y chromosome gene that starts testis development
transcription factor
XY individuals with no testosterone
has testes
outwardly female
sterile
Guevedoces
has SRY
no male genetalia
at puberty
high levels of testosterone differentiate genetalia
penis enlarges, scrotum descends
original female becomes male
Note
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