NBB 201 Final Exam Content

knowledge of ____________ mechanisms helps us understand proximate mechanisms because it explains it over time.

How? describes the ____________ mechanism and Why? describes the ________________ mechanism

our brains have been designed by _____________________ to help us survive and _______________.

This is why we look at human evolved mechanisms of survival and reproduction which include: __________ or flight, ________ retrieval, cooperation and ___________, raising the young, and _______________ and mating.

there is a neural circuit that controls the __________________ you put on something. e.g. in class: food like broccoli vs. donut

value of a prey species depends on: ____________ of finding it, ________ required to find and __________ it, ___________ if it is found, and the _______ factor involved.

the brain represents the value of different prey species using the _______________ General System

_____________ Value refers to the value of a reinforcer upon consumption (in essence this is "_____________" something )

____________ Value refers to the net value of a specific decision option that is under consideration by the agent

____________ Value is decided post consumption whereas ___________ value is determined pre-consumption

while using stimulating electrodes in rat brains to test their valuation system, researchers found that repeated stimulation of the ________________________ system resulted in the rats working to get more shocks.

the _____________________ system is where the cluster of __________ neurons synapse from the ventral _____________ area to the nucleus accumbence (aka the ________________) and medial ______________ cortex.

recall the _________________ which is a part of the reptilian brain is composed of the striatum which is made up of the nucleus ______________ and the caudate nucleus & ______________

the dorsal striatum is made up of the _________ and ____________

the ventral striatum is made up of the _________________.

the striatum is _________ subcortical brain matter where the _____________, _____________, and _____________ are located

single cell recording in rhesus monkeys with pleasure stimulating peanuts revealed that neurons in the midbrain (____________________), ventral _____________, and the _______________ cortex respond to this food reward.

rhesus monkeys __________________ system stopped responding when they were __________.

One form of a functional neuroimaging method is the Posetron ________________ Tomography (______) which uses radio labeled water injected _______________ and the image records the change in ____________ blood flow in response to changes in neural activity.

PET scans work by using a ring of radiation detectors that ____________ where the _______ labeled water injected interveniously (IV). Because it is actively using radiation, it has to be done in small doses and has ________________ resolution because one image takes a long time to process.

An example of an experiment that uses PET scans was the valuation of ________ in human brains. Experimentors structured the study by spacing out radioactive water injections and found that the subject places ___________ on the chocolate as the experiment progressed. This was picked up by the PET which found lower activity in the ___________________ cortex, ______________ and ________________ area

Another form of functional neuroimaging is the _________________ (MRI) which also uses the tracking of oxygenated blood flow.

___________ MRI images changes in brain anatomy whereas a __________ MRI tracks brain activity in response to a stimuli

the __________ is used in our studies because it lights up when brain _________ occurs in response to a stimuli.

highly oxygenated blood goes to ___________ parts of the brain. this can be seen through ___________ and ______ blood cells. ________________ hemoglobin has different magnetic properties which is what the scanner picks up and reports. This is why the ________ scan has much better temporal resolution than the _______ scan.

correlatory studies have also been done to see the association between food valuation and ____________________. what parts of the brain activate when you see highly palatable food (like cheesecake over vegetables)?

We see that there is higher neural activation in the _____________________ consisting of the ______________, _________________, and __________________ when subject are presented with highly palatable food over plain food.

________________________ (BMI) is a record of ____________ relative to ___________.

Correlations between BMI and increased _____________________ activity in the brain have also been seen (Verdejo/Roman et. al and Demos et. al) although this is not a strong correlation --> imperfections of the correlation coefficient could be attributed to other neural, bodily, or external factors.

It has also been found that _________ of abuse target this valuation system in the brain. One such study used _____ scans which showed higher activation of the mesolimbic dopamine system on non-dependent subjects when given ___________.

Basically drugs of abuse work so well because they block _______________ sites in the pre-synaptic terminals which keeps dopamine neurotransmitters in the synapse and continuously binding aka. ___________________. this is what causes the euphoric feeling of using drugs.

in essence, drugs work because of mass ________________ binding

____________ Value related to ___________________________ which is the study of how the brain assigns value to various decision options.

Expected ___________ Theory defines the calculation of expected decision value. The calculation is _________probability x _________ magnitude = expected value. E.g. 80% chance of getting $20 =_____________

a study found that ________ neurons encode expected value in monkeys. This was done by giving a monkey juice while showing them a shape on a screen and recording how their neural activity changed. The monkey would lick the juice tube more when shown a higher _________________ shape. The conclusion was that as the ___________________ of the shape increased, there was a higher ______ response and more licking of the tube.

________ has also been used to test the expected valuation in humans.

all 3 parts of the __________________ system were found to anticipate decision value as well as outcome value in human brains when tested with an _______.

________________________ is when you discount the value of future rewards relative to present rewards.

The _______________ (aka the ventral striatum) and the _________________ encore information about temporal discounting of rewards.

_____________ results in realizing the returns of foraging are better found elsewhere.

_____________ results when the returns from foraging are low but you continue to forage there anyways

__________________ is the neurotransmitter responsible for deciding between exploration and exploitation which occurs in the ___________________

when you are focused, you have _________ bursts of norepinephrine, when you are unengaged and have low performance you have _________ low & high norepinephrine releases in the __________________.

As a result of these studies, stimulation of the ___________________tonic activity stimulates patch leaving

Summary of lecture 1: the ______________ DA system and its targets (______________ and _______) assign value to _________ and foraging __________ (as well as many other things). Locus ______________ firing patters may derive decisions about _____________ v. ______________.

big cats love to eat ______________. we can see hominin predators based on __________________ of our ancestors.

The two major arms of the physiological stress response to emergencies are the ___________________ and the _____________________________________ aka. HPA axis

____________ stress physiology is well-designed for responding to the threat of _____________, as well as other acute physical emergencies.

the _________________________ reaction is for fast and short responses, whereas the ____________________ is a hormonal response that takes longer to enact because it lasts longer.

____________________ regulates fear and flight (fight or flight) and the _________________ regulates digestion, recovery, and rest. _____________ of these systems determines physiological state.

the ________________ nervous system is made up of the _________ and _______.

The SNS is the " _________ or ________" response that includes:

- _________________ secretion around the body

-___________________ secretion from the ___________ gland neighboring the kidney in the adrenal medulla

- biosynthesis from _____________

norepinephrine and epinephrine are ___________ synthesized from _____________. They are called _____________ neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine). Essentially adding R groups to tyrosine can make these neurotransmitters.

types of monoamines:

- ______________________ which are derived from tyrosine (examples: ________________, _______________, and _____________)

- _______________ which are derived from tryptophan (example: ____________)

monoamines are the regulators of the _______________________.

in times of stress, specific cells in the ___________ secrete a hormone called ___________________ (CRH) which stimulates the pituitary gland in a cascade to secrete ________________ (ACTH). ACTH stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland to secrete ______________. _______________ affects the mobilization of energy, immune suppression, and acts as a negative feedback loop to the hypothalamus to stop ________ production.

The pathway of CRH, ACTH, and cortisol in the hypothalamus and adrenal gland (which neighbors the ___________) are all part of the ______ stress response.

___________________ are stress hormones like cortisol secreted from the adrenal gland that acts on the brain and hypothalamus.

the rapid neural response is characterized by increase in heartbeat and ___________, rising _______________ levels, and energized muscles.

slow endocrine responses are characterized by _________________ where proteins and fats are metabolized in the absence of ____________, and _____________ cells are suppressed because of reduction in inflammation.

a functional component of the mammalian stress response is the __________________ of glucose and _____________ acids.

_______________ is stored as glycogen in ____________ and __________ cells.

_______________ acids are stored as _________________ in fat cells.

Hormones/Neurotransmitters that release ___________ and fatty acids are __________________, epinephrine, and ________________.

___________________ & epinephrine cause increased _______________ uptake as a result of increased respiration rate when a mammal is stressed.

When mammal is stressed, there is increased delivery of ___________ and _____________ to skeletal muscle tissues. this is because of increased _______________ caused by epinephrine and norepinephrine, constriction of ___________________ leading to nonessential organs such as the skin and intestines (__________). this leads to increased ________________ also related to epinephrine and norepinephrine

other parts of the stress response: _________ of pupils, memory and cognition are ___________. memory enhances for emotionally arousing stimuli but can have an adverse (inverted ____ shaped effect) if the event is to stressful... eg. ___________

______________ is when endogenous opioids released from the anterior pituitary blocks the pain response (e.g. gunshot wound or long distance runners)

________________ of digestion. When sympathetic is activated and parasympathetic is deactivated, there is reduced ______________ to the stomach and gut, reduced secretion of ___________ and _____________ acids, and reduced intestinal peristalsis (relaxation of the digestive muscles)

_________________ of reproduction. males reduce ________ levels and females reduce ________ levels. Endorphins block GnRH release, Prl decreases pituitary sensitivity to GnRH, glucocorticoids block the response of the testes to LH. This is why men also can have ________________ disorders

Transient stimulation is followed by _______________________.

- Glucocorticoids halt the formation of _____________ in the thalamus, inhibit ____________, and kill off other ________________. This is why people with chronic stress crash and burn and have their immunity repeatedly compromised.

_______________ consequences of __________ stress:

- ________________ because of chronic mobilization of glucose and fatty acids & chronic blockade of storage

- __________

-_____________ (the sympathetic nervous system stimulates muscular movement in large intestines)

-________________ disorders

- ________________ disease and Cancer ________________

Rat Neurobiological Response to Stress: information from all sensory systems feeds into the ___________ nucleus of the _____________. the ____________ nucleus of the amygdala orchestrates physiological and emotional responses too threatening stimuli

Monkey Neurobiological Response to Stress in Monkeys: lesions to the ___________ nucleus of the __________ appeared to reduce the transmission of fear response to snakes and human intruders in monkeys.

In humans, we look at Patient ____ who had natural lesions of the amygdala because of __________________. As a result, she is not scared and does not respect ______________.

Studies evaluating the "trustworthiness of faces" found that bilateral lesions ______________________________, singular lesions _____________________________, and controls ______________________. Additionally the group with the highest amygdala activation when they saw an untrustworthy face was the ___________ group.

the brain (amygdala) still reacts to a fearful face even at ______ ms

In the Mobbs experiment, it was found that simulated predation activates the _______________. This was basically when a predator gets closer to someone activates this part of the brain because of fear of an electrical shock to the subject.

Anxiety disorders such as ____________, __________, _____________, and __________ involve _________________ in the amygdala

_______________ Polymorphism is a shortened version of an allele for _______________ transportation (smaller promoter region) that displays higher levels of trait __________, "neuroticism" and __________ avoidance.

_____________ Behavioral __________ for Generalized ____________ Disorder appeared to normalize ________________ amygdala.

Pharmacological Treatments are characterized by __________, __________________, and ___________.

_________________ can have addictive and cognitive side effects. An example of this is _____________

SSRIs

Nonapeptide

oxytocin synthesis occurs in the __________ in the __________________ and supraoptic nucleus. Oxytocin is released from the ___________ into the bloodstream, however it cannot pass through the ____________________.

Oxytocin works by decreasing the firing of ________________.

the _________ effects of mating. After mating, the males produced significantly more _________ which decreased their anxiety through mating.

Humans administer neuropeptide intranasally because it cannot cross the _________________ barrier which means that it cannot be administered ______.

____________ normalizes amygdala hyperactivity in ________________ disorder.

Summary Slide:

- activation of the ___________________ and _____ axis promotes adaptive responses to physical emergencies such as the threat of predation.

- chronic activation of the SNS and HPA Axis can cause _______________.

- Lesions in rats and monkeys implicate the ___________ in ___________detection

- studies of patients with natural amygdala lesions and _______ studies also implicate human amygdala in _______________.

- The amygdala is composed of several nuclei with different functions such as sensory ___________ and ___________ zones that process and orchestrate behavioral and physiological responses to threats

- The short allele ________ may be associated with anxiety disorders and a stronger ___________ response to threatening stimuli

- A combination of psychotherapy and pharmacological treatments can attenuate amygdala activation to normalize _____________________ in anxiety disorders.

___________ are a social stimulus we constantly deal with. It is a way humans extract information like emotion, mood, genetics, age, sex, identity, attention, etc.

it was statistically found that faced judged to be ______________ won the election more often.

faces are a special class of ___________ stimuli.

even as newborns, we have an inherent preference for following a paddle that ________________ compared to scrambled or linear. newborns will also often __________ their parents facial expressions

the failure to perceive a severe distortion of a face when presented in upside down configuration (normal subjects) is called the _________________ which is related to the _____________ effect

having difficulty recognizing upside-down faces / the innate human preference for viewing a face upright is known as the _______________

Evidence of the Mona Lisa Illusion and the inversion effect are the ability to accurately recognize a ______________ inverted but not a ________________.

the neurological disorder where you can process objects and things, but cannot cognitively process faces - you cannot distinguish/identify people based on their face.

An example of a patient with ________________ was patient WJ who suffered a stroke and could recognize ____________ but could no longer recognize human faces.