9.1 Ronald Reagan

The Reagan Candidacy

Late 1970s in America:

• Many Americans grew tired of conflicts from previous decade

• Uncomfortable with growing cynicism towards political leaders

• Jimmy Carter's "crisis of confidence" speech (referred to as "malaise speech") disturbed many Americans

Ronald Reagan:

• Saw nation was ready for change

• 1980 presidential campaign: presented himself as Washington "outsider" & Carter's opposite

• Emphasized positive aspects of America vs. Carter blaming American self-indulgence and consumerism

• Many voted for Reagan because of his "can-do" attitude, regardless of politics

1980 Election:

• Reagan won by landslide

• John Anderson's third-party candidacy attracted "protest vote" that might have gone to Carter

Supply-Side Economics

Ronald Reagan's Economic Policies:

• Applied theory of supply-side economics

• Believed reducing corporate taxes would lead to greater profits, job creation, and wealth trickle down

• Large-scale deregulation in banking, industry, and environment

• Across-the-board tax cut for all Americans

Effects of Reagan's Policies:

• Little effect initially, country continued in recession for two years

• Results mixed: inflation subsided, but criticism that rich getting richer and poor getting poorer

• Rich used money saved on taxes to buy luxury items, rather than reinvesting in economy as suggested by supply-side economics

Military Spending and Budget Deficits

Ronald Reagan Administration

• New Federalism Plan

  • Shift power from national government to states

  • States take complete responsibility for welfare, food stamps, and other social welfare programs

  • National government would assume entire cost of Medicaid

  • Goal was never accomplished

  • States feared increase in cost of state government

• Military Spending Increase

  • Funded research into space-based missile shield system (Strategic Defense Initiative or SDI)

  • Escalated arms race with USSR

  • Historians debate contribution to end of Cold War

• Increased Deficit

  • Tax cuts, increased military spending, and failure of New Federalism led to increase in federal budget deficit

  • Government spending increased, government revenues shrank

  • Government had to borrow money

  • Congress blamed deficit on tax cuts

  • Reagan blamed Congress for refusing to decrease funding for social welfare programs

  • Federal deficit reached record heights during Reagan administration

Foreign Policy Under Reagan

• Ending the Cold War

  • Supported repressive regimes and right-wing insurgents

  • U.S. military led international invasion of Grenada

  • Priority: support for Contras in Nicaragua

    • Contras known for torturing and murdering civilians

    • Congress cut off aid, Reagan administration funded through other channels (Iran-Contra affair)

    • Constitutional crisis, debate over power of the purse and checks and balances

  • Marines sent to Lebanon as part of UN peacekeeping force

    • Suicide bomb killed 240 servicemen

    • Eventual pullout of troops

• U.S.-Soviet Relations

  • Reagan's hard-line anticommunism initially led to deterioration in relations

  • Rhetorical war and escalated arms race

  • Adversaries eventually brought to bargaining table due to high cost

  • Gorbachev rose to power in Soviet Union

    • Economic policy of perestroika, social reforms of glasnost

    • Loosened Soviet control of Eastern Europe, increased personal liberties, allowed free-market commerce

    • Reagan and Gorbachev negotiated withdrawal of nuclear warheads from Europe

9.2 George H.W. Bush

Election of 1988

• George Bush defeats Michael Dukakis

• Bush calls for "kinder, gentler nation"

• "Read my lips: No new taxes"

• Progressive liberalism destroyed

• "Liberalism" becomes "L word"

• Feminism becomes "F word"

• Conventional wisdom holds Americans returned to traditional values

• Moral majority appeared to have spoken

Presidency of George Bush

• End of Cold War

• Berlin Wall dismantled, Soviet Union breakup

• Bush sets course for US foreign policy into 21st century

• Persian Gulf War

Persian Gulf War

• Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait

• Washington reacts immediately

• Bush builds consensus in Congress and assembles international coalition

• Operation Desert Storm - massive air strikes against Iraqi targets

• War ends quickly, few American casualties

• Iraq required to submit to UN inspectors for WMD and chemical warfare production

• Saddam Hussein remains in power

• U.S. foreign policy focus on political stability in Middle East and human rights

9.3 Changing Demographics

Immigration in America

• Immigration has significantly affected the shape and tenor of American society

• From the 1970s to today, the fastest-growing ethnic minorities are Hispanics and Asians

• Hispanics now outnumber African Americans as the largest minority in the US

• Growth of Asians and Hispanics fueled by immigration

• The Immigration Act of 1965 contributed to the increase of immigration by relaxing restrictions on non-European immigration

Who are the Immigrants?

• Hispanics: Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua

• Asians: Philippines, China, South Korea, India

• Settled mostly in California, Texas, Florida, Southwest

Reasons for Immigration

• Reuniting families

• Employment of skilled workers (scientists) and political refugees

• Employment of Cuban and Southeast Asian refugees from Fidel Castro’s revolution and the Vietnam War

Statistics

• Number of foreign-born people living in the US went from 10 million to 31 million from 1970 to 2000

• 51% of foreign-born people were from Latin America, 27% from Asia

Impact on American Society

• Heated debates on immigration policy, bilingual education, affirmative action

• Discussions centered on illegal immigration, impact on the economy, reshaping society by new cultures, attitudes, and ideas

• Tensions have led to measures to curb illegal immigration, abolish bilingual education, allow low-skilled and high-skilled workers on a temporary basis

• The Simpson-Mazzoli Act in 1986 outlawed the employment of illegal immigrants and granted legal status to some illegal aliens

• Guest worker programs like the Bracero program (1942-1964) aimed to curb illegal immigration by offering temporary employment to migrant farm workers

Unresolved Problems

• Issues persist with illegal immigration

• Guest worker programs face pressure to end from organized labor frustrated at decrease in wages

Diversity, Asset, or Liability?

Demographic Changes in the US

• Major demographic changes underway in the US

• New waves of immigration leading to ethnic enclaves

  • Examples: Little Italy, Chinatown, Little Havana, Little Saigon

• Increase in multilingual services and media catering to specific ethnic groups

  • Specifically, Hispanics and Asians

• Political parties targeting Hispanics for potential political influence

Impact of Demographic Changes

• Impact will be felt for generations to come

Ethnic Enclaves in the US

• Little Italy in New York City

• Chinatown in San Francisco

• Little Havana in Miami, Florida

• Little Saigon in Orange County, California

Services Catering to Ethnic Groups

• Multilingual services

• Media catering to Hispanics and Asians

9.4 The Clinton Presidency (1993–2001)

• William Jefferson Clinton was the 42nd President of the United States and the first Democrat to be elected after Jimmy Carter.

• During his two terms, significant changes occurred in the way Americans do business due to the impact of globalization and advancements in digital technology.

• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed into law by Clinton in 1993, which aimed to eliminate trade barriers among the United States, Mexico, and Canada.

• The 1994 Congressional Election saw the Republicans take back control of Congress, but their power was limited by Clinton's executive power.

• The Clinton-Lewinsky scandal resulted in Clinton's impeachment, but he was acquitted by the Senate and remained in office to finish his second term.

• Clinton's foreign policy aimed to protect human rights around the world, although he faced criticism for defending capitalism over democracy and turning a blind eye to human rights violations in China.

• In 1999, Clinton supported a NATO bombing campaign in the former Yugoslavia against Slobodan Milosevic, who was eventually tried and convicted for crimes against humanity.

• Other events that took place during Clinton's presidency include his "Don't ask, don't tell" policy for gays in the military, appointments of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the Supreme Court, and the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.

9.5 The 2000 Election

2000 Presidential Election

• A candidate must win a majority of electoral votes to win the presidency according to the Constitution

• "Winner-take-all" system in most states

• Possibility of winning popular vote nationwide but losing the presidency

• Mishaps with voting procedure in Florida

• Al Gore challenged the results

• Supreme Court prevented a formal recount of the vote

• George W. Bush elected

George W. Bush Administration

• Rise in neoconservatism

• Sharp opposition to paleoconservatism

• Spread democracy and put American corporate interests first through military actions abroad

• Global trade and open immigration seen as net positive

• Criticized by both staunch liberals and paleoconservatives

• Staunch liberals: excessive corporate power and global imperialism

• Traditional conservatives: cost of military adventures, loss of domestic jobs, and unrestricted immigration

• Loss of faith in the ability of the federal government to solve social and economic problems

Key Players

• George W. Bush

• Al Gore

• John Quincy Adams

• Samuel J. Tilden

• Rutherford B. Hayes

• Dick Cheney

• Donald Rumsfeld

• Paul Wolfowitz

• Patrick J. Buchanan

African Americans in Politics

• Voting Rights Act and Amendment Ban Measures

• Voting rights for African Americans improved dramatically

• Increase from 20% registered to vote in 1960 to 62% by 1971

• Elected Officials

  • African American mayors elected in cities in the 80s

  • Virginia elects first African American governor in 1990

  • First African American governor: P.B.S. Pinchback (LA, 15 days in 1872)

• African American Representation in Congress

  • Shirley Chisholm was first African American woman elected to Congress in 1968

  • First African American to run for president: Shirley Chisholm (1972)

  • Jesse Jackson ran for Democratic nomination in 1984 and 1988

  • In 2000, 1,540 African American legislators (10% of total)

• Powerful African American Political Figures

  • Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice: Secretaries of State under George W. Bush

  • Thurgood Marshall appointed to Supreme Court by Lyndon Johnson in 1960s

• Historic Election: Barack Obama as President

  • Elected in 2008 as first African American president of the United States

Urban Problems

Urban Migration and Trends in the 1950s and 1960s

• People moved to cities for employment and cheaper housing

• African Americans moved to northern and western cities, like during WWI and II

• Other minorities, including Latin American immigrants, drawn to cities for similar reasons

• Urban problems like overcrowding, high crime, inadequate housing and commercial areas

White Flight in the 1970s and 1980s

• Trend of mostly white, middle-class Americans leaving cities for suburbs

• Attracted by open spaces, shopping malls, and better-funded schools

• Businesses and industries followed, leading to insufficient funds for cities

• Poor people and racial minorities remained in cities

Urban Riots and Racial Tensions

• Televised urban riots in the 1960s heightened racial tensions (LA, Chicago, NY after MLK Jr. assassination)

• Worst urban riot occurred in 1992 in South Central LA after acquittal of white police officers in beating of Rodney King

• Tensions between urban and suburban areas highlighted racial and class animosity

• Forced busing of students in 1974-1975 resulted in violence in South Boston

Contemporary Urban Trends

• Both violent crime and property crime have plunged since early 1990s

• Crime reached lowest level in 40 years in 2010

• Drop in crime even more pronounced in large urban areas

• Affluent young professionals have returned to city centers

Debate on Crime Reduction Causes

• Active debate over what caused drop in crime

• One theory credits falling levels of lead in environment due to legislation in early 1970s

• Lead poisoning linked to criminal activity

Revitalization of American Cities

• Dramatic drop in crime has led to revitalization of American cities over past 20 years

America and the War on Terror

Foreign Policy Shift after 9/11

• 9/11 Attacks

  • Al Qaeda (Osama bin Laden) attacks World Trade Center and Pentagon

  • Fourth plane crashes in Pennsylvania

  • Almost 3,000 civilian casualties

• Response to 9/11

  • Support from NATO allies for attack on Taliban government in Afghanistan

  • Removal of Taliban and restoration of democracy in Afghanistan

• Invasion of Iraq

  • Allegations of Saddam Hussein's involvement in 9/11

  • Human rights violations and rumors of weapons of mass destruction

  • Quick seizure of Baghdad and power vacuum

  • Establishment of provisional government

  • Prolonged American occupation due to tensions between political and religious factions

The Conservative Resurgence

Evangelical Christians in Politics

• Right-wing Evangelical Christians were instrumental in energizing conservatives during the 1970s and 1980s

• Evangelicalism became increasingly prominent in political life from the 1970s through the 1990s

  • Fundamentalist sects emphasized a “born-again” religious experience and strict standards of moral behavior from the Bible

  • Fundamentalists denounced moral relativism of liberals and believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible

  • Evangelical groups became increasingly political

Key Figures in the New Right

• Conservative Evangelicals and fundamentalists such as Billy Graham, Jerry Falwell, and Pat Robertson helped to mobilize like-minded citizens to support the Republican Party

• The strength of the New Right was evident in the key role it played in electing Ronald Reagan in 1980 and recapturing control of Congress under Bill Clinton in 1994

Evangelical Support for Republicans

• Evangelical Christians continued to support Republicans with the election and re-election of George W. Bush

Digital Revolution

• Increased access to digital technology like personal computers and cellular phones

• Increased data storage in new devices

• Exponential increase in the use of technology for personal and business purposes

Dot-Com Bubble

• Speculation on the value of internet-based companies in the late 1990s

• Created first wave of Internet millionaires

• Bubble burst by 2001

Employment Changes in the US

• Decreased manufacturing jobs (by a third) from 1990 to 2010

• Replaced by retail jobs around the turn of the century

• 2008-2009 recession reduced retail employment

• Many Americans found new work in the booming healthcare industry

Decline of Unions

• Unions faced decline throughout the second half of the 20th century, particularly in its final three decades

• Factors contributing to decline:

  • The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 restricted the ability to strike and preferential hiring of union members

  • Union busting, exemplified by President Reagan's firing of 3,000 striking air traffic controllers in 1981

  • Generational divide, with younger generations not experiencing the struggles and benefits of unions

Effects of Decline

• Income inequality has grown, with consolidation of wealth in the upper echelon of American earners

• Stagnation of wages, due to decrease in collective bargaining power

• Union membership decreased from 34% in 1979 to 10% in 2010

9.6 Repeal of Glass-Steagall

Background: signed by President Roosevelt in 1933, response to bank instability leading up to Great Depression

• Provisions: banks forced to choose between commercial or investment operations, prohibited from participating in both

• Glass-Steagall repealed: Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 did away with provisions

• Consequences: Critics argue that repeal of Glass-Steagall contributed to the 2008 recession, caused by banks offering speculative home loans

• Key Players: Joseph Stiglitz, among economists, is critical of the repeal of Glass-Steagall.

Gender Roles

Women's Role in Professional Settings

• Increased role in 21st century

• Glass ceiling remains a concern

• Average age for first marriage increased, women prioritizing careers

• 2008 recession affected jobs held by men more

• Women as primary breadwinner for families

• Increase in women elected to political office

  • Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign in 2016

  • Geraldine Ferraro in 1984

  • Sarah Palin in 2008

  • Historic levels of women elected to Congress

Changes in Family Structures

• Decrease in two-parent households (87% in 1960 to 69% today)

• Increase in one-parent households (9% in 1960 to 26% today)

Recent Trends

Elections of Barack Obama and Donald Trump

• unlikely to be tested on these elections

Financial Crash of 2008

• Bush and Obama administrations responded by providing financial assistance to major banks (banker bailout)

Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)

• most important piece of legislation under Obama's tenure

• aimed to regulate the medical industry and provide subsidies to uninsured Americans

2016 Election

• marked by ideological divisions within the Republican Party and a rivalry between Trump and Clinton

• Trump won the Electoral College, Clinton won the national popular vote

• emergence of a new populism of skepticism for established institutions and optimism for political outsiders

Trump Presidency

• marked by increased division between Democrats and Republicans

• claims of "fake media" and partisan politics

2020 Election

• Joe Biden vs. incumbent Trump

• greatest population turnout in U.S. history

• driven by political polarization and economic collapse (COVID-19 pandemic)

Impact on U.S. History

• long-term social and political implications of the Trump administration and pandemic remain unclear.