4.1 The “Revolution of 1800”

General

• By 1800, the Federalist Party was split, clearing the way to the presidency for the Democratic-Republicans

• Two men ran for the party nomination: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr

Election Results

• Each received an equal number of votes in the Electoral College, which meant that the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives was required to choose a president from between the two

• It took 35 ballots, but Jefferson finally won

• Alexander Hamilton swallowed hard and campaigned for Jefferson, with whom he disagreed on most issues and whom he personally disliked, because he believed Burr to be “a most unfit and dangerous man.”

• Burr later proved Hamilton right by killing him.

Noteworthy Reasons

• The election was noteworthy for two reasons

• For the second time in as many elections, a president was saddled with a vice president he did not want.

• The other, more important reason the election was significant is that in America’s first transfer of power—from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans—no violence occurred, a feat practically unprecedented for the time.

Change-over

• Jefferson referred to his victory and the subsequent change-over as “the bloodless revolution.”

• The problem of the president being saddled with a vice president he did not want was remedied in 1804 with the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which allowed electors to vote for a party ticket.

The Jeffersonian Republic (1800– 1823)

Jefferson’s First Term

General

• The transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans may have been a bloodless one, but it was not a friendly one

• Adams was so upset about the election that he left the capital before Jefferson took office in order to avoid attending the inauguration ceremony

Midnight Appointments

• Before he left town, Adams made a number of midnight appointments, filling as many government positions with Federalists as he could

• Jefferson’s response was to refuse to recognize those appointments

• He then set about replacing as many Federalist appointees as he could. He dismissed some, pressured others to retire, and waited out the rest

• By his second term, the majority of public appointees were Democratic-Republicans

Marbury v. Madison

• Jefferson’s refusal to accept Adams’s midnight appointments resulted in a number of lawsuits against the government

• One, the case of Marbury v. Madison reached the Supreme Court in 1803

• William Marbury, one of Adams’s last-minute appointees, had sued Secretary of State James Madison for refusing to certify his appointment to the federal bench

• Chief Justice John Marshall was a Federalist, and his sympathies were with Marbury, but Marshall was not certain that the court could force Jefferson to accept Marbury’s appointment

• Marshall’s decision in the case established one of the most important principles of the Supreme Court: judicial review

• The court ruled that Marbury did indeed have a right to his judgeship but that the court could not enforce his right.

Judicial Review

• The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court the authority to order federal appointees (such as Madison) to deliver appointments such as William Marbury’s

• Marshall believed that this act gave too much power to the Judicial Branch at the expense of Congress and the Presidency, and thus it was unconstitutional

• In one fell swoop, Marshall had handed Jefferson the victory he wanted while simultaneously claiming a major role for the Supreme Court

Louisiana Purchase

• The major accomplishment of Jefferson’s first term was the Louisiana Purchase

• When Spain gave New Orleans to the French in 1802, the government realized that a potentially troublesome situation was developing

• The French, they knew, were more likely to take advantage of New Orleans’ strategic location at the mouth of the Mississippi

General

• Thomas Jefferson faced with a dilemma with regards to the Constitution and the power of the federal government

• as secretary of state under Washington, he had argued for a strict interpretation of the Constitution

Dilemma

• Nowhere did the Constitution authorize the president to purchase land, yet clearly Jefferson could not pass up this opportunity to double the size of the United States

• Jefferson thought about trying to get a constitutional amendment added allowing him to buy land from other countries

• Ultimately, Jefferson resolved the issue by claiming his presidential power to negotiate treaties with foreign nations

Louisiana Purchase

• His decision to purchase Louisiana without Congressional approval was not unanimously applauded

• New England Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase because they feared (correctly) that more western states would be more Democratic states, and that they would lose political power.

• They formed a group called the Essex Junto, planning to secede from the United States (and asked Aaron Burr to be their leader), but the plan never fully materialized

• Some Republicans, led by John Randolph of Virginia, criticized Jefferson for violating Republican principles. This group became known as the Quids

Lewis and Clark Expedition

• Jefferson sent explorers, among them Lewis and Clark, to investigate the western territories, including much of what was included in the Louisiana territory

• This trip included Sacajawea as the Shoshoni guide who helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with other Native American tribes on the way up the Missouri River

• All returned with favorable reports, causing many pioneers to turn their attentions westward in search of land, riches, and economic opportunities

• Those early explorers also reported back to Jefferson on the presence of British and French forts that still dotted the territory, garrisoned with foreign troops that had been (deliberately?) slow to withdraw after the regime changes of the previous half-century

Election of 1804

• In 1804, Jefferson won reelection in a landslide victory

• During the 1804 elections, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York

• Again, Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr

• When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel in which he killed Hamilton

• Afterward, Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory. He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted due to lack of evidence

Jefferson’s Second Term

• French-English dispute leads to War of 1812

• British and French blockading trade routes

• American ships and sailors impressed by British

• Tensions mount, culminating in British frigate attack on American ship in American waters

• Jefferson unable to go to war, responds with boycott and increasing military appropriations

Embargo Act of 1807

• Shut down of American import and export business

• Disastrous economic results, especially in New England

• Smuggling becomes widespread

• New England states strongly opposed

• Led to loss of Democratic Republican Congressional seats in 1808 elections

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809

• Reopened trade with most nations

• Officially banned trade with Britain and France

• Jefferson chooses not to seek third term, endorses James Madison for presidency

4.2 Madison’s Presidency and the War of 1812

Macon's Bill No. 2

• Reopened trade with both France and England

• If either country interfered with American trade, the other would be cut off

• Napoleon promised to stop interference, leading to embargo on England

• France continued to harass American ships

• British stepped up attacks on American ships

Pro-War Sentiments

• Southern and Western War Hawks saw opportunity to gain new territories

• Strong desire to gain Canada from British

• Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun

Madison and the Declaration of War

• Madison held out as long as he could

• Finally asked Congress to declare war in 1812.

War of 1812

• Native Americans aligned with British

• Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion

• British armed Native Americans in Western territories

• American forces ill-prepared for war, fighting went badly

• British captured Washington, D.C. and set White House on fire

• Most battles fought to a stalemate

• Treaty of Ghent signed, ending war

• Battle of New Orleans, clear-cut U.S. victory

• Federalists opposed war and met in Hartford Convention

• War spurred American manufacturing, led to self-sufficiency

The Hartford Convention

• Grievances including trade laws and presidential term limits

• Federalists considered traitors, party dissolved

Madison Administration

• Promoted national growth

• Cautious extension of federal power

• Championed protective tariffs, interstate road improvements, and rechartering of National Bank (American System/Nationalist Program)

• Henry Clay lobbied aggressively for American System, often referred to as "Henry Clay's American System"

Monroe’s Presidency

Era of Good Feelings

• Only one political party, briefly leaves United States with unity

• Chief Justice John Marshall's rulings strengthens federal government

• Panic of 1819 causes economic turmoil and nearly ends good feelings

• No nationally organized political opposition results from panic

Westward Expansion

• John Quincy Adams negotiated treaties to fix U.S. borders and open new territories

• Acquisition of Florida from Spanish through Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819

• International tensions caused by revolutions in Central and South America

• Monroe Doctrine: Policy of mutual non-interference and America's right to intervene in its own hemisphere

• Monroe Doctrine is first of several doctrines that will become foreign policy

Slavery Debate

• New period of expansion results in national debate over slavery

• Missouri is the first state carved out of Louisiana Purchase and slavery debate continues until Civil War.

4.3 Political Events and Social Developments

The Election of 1824 and John Quincy Adams’s Presidency

Election of 1824

• Prior to 1824, electors chosen by state legislatures or congressional caucuses

• By 1824, majority of states allowed voters to choose presidential electors directly

• Democratic-Republican caucus chose William H. Crawford, leading to opposition and demise of caucus system

• Andrew Jackson received the greatest number of popular votes and electoral votes but no one had a majority

• Election decided in the House of Representatives, with Speaker of the House Clay supporting Adams

Corrupt Bargain

• Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State, leading to allegations of a corrupt bargain between the two

• Adams and Clay both vowed to be removed in the election of 1828

• William Crawford suffered a stroke after the initial election and was not a real contender for the House vote

Constitution

• In cases where there is no majority winner in the Electoral College, the three top electoral winners go on to House election

The Jackson Presidency and Jacksonian Democracy

• Andrew Jackson's era as president is an important period in American history

• Jackson's campaign for presidency in 1824 was vicious, with surrogates accusing opponents of corruption and misconduct

• The campaign eventually led to the formation of the present-day Democratic Party

• In 1828, Jackson won the election by a large margin and became the first president who wasn't born in Virginia or named Adams

• Jackson was seen as the epitome of a self-made man and had the interests of the West in mind

• Among his first acts as president, Jackson dismissed numerous government officials and replaced them with political supporters

• This led to criticism of cronyism and the rise of the spoils system, in which jobs were traded for political favors

• Jackson's popularity ushered in the age of Jacksonian democracy, which replaced Jeffersonian republicanism

• Jacksonian democracy characterized by universal white manhood suffrage and a strong presidency

• Jackson used his popularity to challenge Congress and the Supreme Court in a way that none of his predecessors had

• However, Jacksonian democracy is not a coherent vision of how a government should function and Jackson was not as great a thinker as Jefferson.

• Jackson's treatment of the Cherokees with the Indian Removal Act of 1830 is one of the most criticized policies by modern scholars.

• The concept of treating Native Americans as "foreign nations" was established by the British, and the US government continued this policy after gaining independence.

• Some Americans, such as Thomas Jefferson, believed that assimilation into American culture could be a solution to the "Indian Problem."

• By the time of Jackson's presidency, there were "Five Civilized Tribes" living in the South, including the Cherokee nation. They had developed a written language, converted to Christianity, and embraced agriculture.

• The problem arose when gold was discovered on Cherokee land and citizens of Georgia demanded that the Cherokees comply with the Indian Removal Act, which demanded that they resettle in Oklahoma.

• Jackson argued that moving away from white society was the best way to protect themselves from white encroachment and maintain their traditional customs.

• The Cherokees refused and brought their case to the Supreme Court, which sided with them in two cases. However, Jackson refused to comply with the Court's decision and thousands of Cherokees were forced to walk to Oklahoma in what is known as the Trail of Tears. Thousands died of sickness and starvation along the way.

• Another issue during Jackson's presidency was the doctrine of nullification, where states believed they had the right to disobey federal laws if they found them unconstitutional.

• The Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations, was passed during the Adams administration but almost turned into a national crisis during Jackson's administration.

• In 1828, John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president, anonymously published "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest" arguing that states who felt the 50 percent tariff was unfairly high could nullify the law.

Economic Policies

• Distrust of big government and northeastern power brokers

• Downsizing the federal government and strengthening the presidency through the use of veto

• Opposed reform movements that called for increased government activism

• Vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS) and withdrew federal funds to deposit in state "pet" banks

• Believed the BUS protected northeastern interests at the expense of the West

• Argued that the bank was an unconstitutional monopoly, but the Supreme Court ruled against him

• Preferred "hard currency" such as gold or silver

• Specie Circular, which ended the policy of selling government land on credit, caused a money shortage and a sharp decrease in the treasury, and helped trigger the Panic of 1837

• Congress overturned the circular in the last days of Jackson's final term

Slavery

• Grew to be an ever more controversial issue during the time of Jacksonian Democracy

• As the northern abolition movement grew stronger, the South experienced several slave revolts

• More brutal disciplinary measures by slaveholders

• Nat Turner's Rebellion, a slave rebellion where Nat Turner rallied a gang that killed and mutilated 60 whites.

• In retaliation, 200 enslaved people were executed, some with no connection at all to the rebellion

• Fearful that other enslaved people would emulate Turner's exploits, southern states passed a series of restrictive laws, known as slave codes, prohibiting Black people from congregating and learning to read

• Other state laws even prevented whites from questioning the legitimacy of slavery

• After Turner's Rebellion, Virginia's House of Burgesses debated ending bondage but did not pass a law.

4.4 The Election of 1836 and the Rise of the Whigs

Democratic Party and Whig Party

• Jackson's Democratic party unable to represent all constituencies (northern abolitionists, southern plantation owners, western pioneers)

• Whig party formed as opposition to Democratic party

• By 1834, almost as many congressmen supported Whig party as Democratic party

• Whigs were a loose coalition united by opposition to Democratic party policies

• Whigs believed in government activism, especially in social issues

• Many Whigs were religious and supported temperance movement and enforcement of the Sabbath

Whig Beliefs

• Similar to Federalists in support of manufacturing, opposition to new immigrants, and Westward Expansion

Election of 1836 and Panic of 1837

• Jackson supported Democrat Martin Van Buren for vice president

• Van Buren assumed presidency during economic crisis (Panic of 1837)

• Van Buren's policy of favoring hard currency made money hard to come by, worsening the crisis

• Economic downturn lasted through Van Buren's term, making re-election unlikely

William Henry Harrison and John Tyler

• Whig William Henry Harrison became president in 1841, but died a month later

• Vice president John Tyler, a former Democrat, assumed presidency

• Tyler championed states' rights, alienating Whig leadership

• Tyler vetoed numerous Whig bills, causing his cabinet to resign in protest

• Tyler referred to as "president without a party," and his presidency lasted only one term.

Economic History (1800–1860)

Economic Developments in 19th century US

• Economic developments played important role in political events leading to Civil War and determined characteristics of different regions

• Along with social developments, economic factors laid foundation for important issues in American society for following century (abolitionism, women's suffrage, temperance)

Beginnings of a Market Economy

• Before Revolutionary War, most settlers raised crops for subsistence, not market

• People made own clothing and built own furniture and homes, cash transactions were rare

• Developments in manufacturing and transportation led to market economy development

• Market economy favors those who specialize, but can also lead to overproduction and dependence on market

• Rapid transition from subsistence economy to market economy in first decades of 19th century

War of 1812 and National Economy

• War of 1812 and events leading up to it forced US to become less dependent on imports and develop stronger national economy

Cotton Gin and Interchangeable parts

• Cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, revolutionized southern agriculture and increased demand for cotton

• Spread of cotton as chief crop intensified South's dependence on slave labor

• Other notable inventions that revolutionized agriculture include steel plow and mechanical reaper

• Whitney's second innovation was use of interchangeable parts in manufacturing, which made mass production more efficient and cost-effective.

North and Textile Industry

• Textile industry in the North was developed by advances in machine technology and U.S. embargo on British goods prior to War of 1812

• Textile mills in New England produced thread and hired local women to weave thread into cloth at home

• Power loom in 1813 allowed manufacturers to produce both thread and finished fabric in own factories quickly and efficiently

• Shortage of labor in New England led to worker-enticement programs like Lowell system

• Other industries such as clothing manufacturers, retailers, brokers, and commercial banks grew around textile industry

Transportation Industry

• Prior to 1820s, travel and shipping along east-west routes was difficult and most trade centered on north-south routes

• Construction of National Road and completion of Erie Canal in 1825 made east-west travel and trade more accessible

• Northeast established itself as center of commerce due to success of Erie Canal

• Other regions attempted to duplicate success of Erie Canal with construction of thousands of miles of canals in the Northeast and Midwest, but most failed

• Railroads developed as convenient means of transporting goods and by 1850, the Canal Era had ended.

Transportation and Communication

• Inventions of steam engine and telegraph revolutionized travel and shipping, allowing for faster and more efficient transportation and communication

• Steamships replaced sailing ships for long sea voyages and railroads replaced land travel

• The Transportation Revolution by 1855, the cost to send things across America had fallen to one-twentieth of what it had cost in 1825, and they arrived in one-fifth the time.

• Telegraph allowed for immediate long-distance communication and widespread use followed its invention almost immediately

Farming

• Mechanization revolutionized farming in the first half of the 19th century, with many machines such as mechanical plow, sower, reaper, thresher, baler, and cotton gin coming into common use

• Growth of market economy changed farming as more food went to market

• Farming in the Northeast faced difficulties due to rocky, hilly terrain and over-farming of land, leading to some farmers switching to livestock and fruits/vegetables, or leaving for manufacturing jobs

• Midwest became America's chief source of grains and farms were larger and more adaptable to new technology, with banks providing capital for modern equipment and trade routes providing access to markets.

4.5 Westward Expansion

• Louisiana Purchase removed major obstacle to U.S. western settlement

• War of 1812 removed another obstacle by depriving Native Americans of British ally

• By 1820, U.S. had settled region east of Mississippi River and was quickly expanding west

• Americans believed in God-given right to western territories, known as America's Manifest Destiny

• Some argued for annexation of Canada, Mexico, and all of Americas

Dangerous Western Settlement

• Terrain and climate could be cold and unforgiving

• Settlers from East moving into areas belonging to Native Americans and Mexicans

Texas

• Mexico declared independence from Spain in 1821, included what is now Texas and Southwest

• Mexican government established liberal land policies to entice settlers

• Tens of thousands of Americans flooded the region, rarely becoming Mexican citizens

• Ignored Mexican law, including prohibition of slavery

• Mexican attempts to regain control led to rebellion and declaration of independence

• Texas was independent country called Republic of Texas

• Existence of slavery guaranteed Congressional battle over statehood, not admitted to Union until 1845

Oregon Territory

• Thousands of settlers traveled to Willamette Valley via the Oregon Trail in early 1840s

• Americans not first in area, large Native American population and British claiming for Canada

• Russians also staked claim, both British and Americans saw them as a threat

• Polk administration settled territorial dispute by signing treaty with England

• Late 1840s, destination shifted to California due to Gold Rush

• Discovery of gold in California mountains attracted over 100,000 people in 2 years

• Most did not strike it rich, but settled area due to hospitable agriculture and access to Pacific Ocean for trade centers like San Francisco.

Economic Reasons for Regional Differences

• Three different sections of the country- North, South, and West (including Midwest) developed in different directions

• North becoming industrialized, commercial center

• South remained agrarian, chief crops- tobacco and cotton, constantly looking west for more land

• Western economic interests varied but were largely rooted in commercial farming, fur trapping, and real-estate speculation

North

• Technological advances in communications, transportation, industry, and banking helped it become the nation's commercial center

• Farming played less of a role in northeastern economy than elsewhere in the country

• Legal slavery became increasingly uncommon in this region throughout the early 1800s

South

• Remained almost entirely agrarian

• Chief crops- tobacco and cotton required vast acreage

• Anxious to protect slavery, which the large landholders depended on, Southerners also looked for new slave territories to include in the Union

• To strengthen their position in Congress and protect slavery from northern legislators

West

• Westerners generally distrusted the North, which they regarded as the home of powerful banks that could take their land away

• They had little more use for the South, whose rigidly hierarchical society was at odds with the egalitarianism of the West

• Most Westerners wanted to avoid involvement in the slavery issue, which they regarded as irrelevant to their lives

• Ironically, western expansion was the core of the most important conflicts leading up to the Civil War.

4.6 Social History, 1800-1860

• Growth of American economy in early 19th century brought about numerous social changes

• Cotton gin and Industrial Revolution in England altered southern agriculture and increased reliance on slave labor

• Development of commerce led to larger middle class, especially in North but also in southern and midwestern cities

• Industrialization resulted in bigger cities with large (and often impoverished) migrant and immigrant neighborhoods

• Westward migration created new frontier culture as pioneers dealt with uniqueness of West's landscape and climate

• Each of these circumstances influenced people's attitudes and ambitions and set the scene for social and political events of the era

The North and American Cities

• North became the nation's industrial and commercial center during the first half of the 19th century

• Home to many of the nation's major cities

• Cities faced numerous problems, lack of powerful urban governments to oversee rapid expansion

• Modern waste disposal, plumbing, sewers, and incineration not yet developed, cities could be toxic environments

• Proximity in which people lived and worked, coupled with sanitation problems, made epidemics likely

• Cities meant jobs, many northern farmers moved to cities to work in new factories

• Cities offered more opportunities for social advancement

• Public schooling, labor unions, clubs and associations for middle and upper class to exert influence on government and society

• Cities provided a wide variety of leisure-time options, such as theater and sports

• Great disparity in distribution of wealth in northern cities, elite few controlled most of the personal wealth and led lives of power and comfort

• Beneath them was the middle class, made up of tradesmen, brokers, and other professionals

• Middle class often rose from the working class, who often worked in factories or at low-paying crafts, women often worked at home or as domestic servants

• Cult of domesticity, supported by popular magazines and novels that glorified home life

• Middle class also made up most of the market for luxury goods such as housewares and fine furniture

• Working-class families lived just above poverty level, any calamity could plunge them into debt

• Those in poverty were mostly recent immigrants, numbers swelled in the 1840s and 1850s

• Immigrants faced discrimination and prejudice, often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions

• Westward migration brought new set of social problems, including issues of land ownership, displacement of Native Americans, and question of slavery.

• The majority of Southerners lived in rural areas in near isolation in the South.

• Family and church played a dominant role in social life, as there were few people around to support organized cultural and leisure events.

• The South had few centers of commerce and limited infrastructure compared to the North.

• The wealthiest Southern citizens formed an aristocracy of plantation owners who dominated southern society politically, socially, and economically.

• Plantation owners grew cotton and tobacco, and many convinced themselves that the slave system benefited all of its participants, including the enslaved people.

• Enslaved people lived in a state of subsistence poverty, often overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, and worked long hours at difficult and tedious labor.

• Enslaved people developed a unique culture that blended aspects of their African roots with elements of Christianity, and developed subtle methods of resistance to maintain their dignity.

• The majority of Southerners farmed small plots of land and were relatively poor, but they were generally self-sufficient.

The West and Frontier Living

• The West and Frontier Living in the 19th century saw the constant changing of the frontier's boundaries.

• In 1800, the frontier lay east of the Mississippi River, but by 1820, nearly all of this eastern territory had attained statehood and the frontier region consisted of much of the Louisiana Purchase.

• Settlers also moved to Texas and then to a part of Mexico in the late 1820s and 1830s and by the early 1840s, the frontier had expanded to include the Pacific Northwest.

• The US government actively encouraged settlers to move west by giving away or selling large tracts of land to war veterans and loaned money at reduced rates to civilians.

• Settlers in the Ohio Valley and points west found the area was hospitable to grain production and dairy farming due to the flat land and new farm implements.

• Transportation advances also made shipping produce easier and more profitable, leading to the Midwest becoming known as "the nation’s breadbasket."

• Fur trading was another common commercial enterprise on the frontiers, with fur traders often being the first pioneers in a region.

• Frontier life was rugged and settlers struggled against the climate, elements, and Native Americans.

• The frontier offered opportunities for wealth, freedom, and social advancement, making it a symbol of freedom and equality to many Americans.

• The 19th century saw the beginnings of true social reform in the United States, with many social reform movements growing out of the Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival.

• Women were particularly active in reform groups, particularly those of the middle and upper classes.

• The western and central regions of New York State were known as the Burned-over District for the spiritual fervor in the area.

Mormonism, Abolitionists

• Joseph Smith formed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in 1830.

• Smith's preaching, particularly his acceptance of polygamy, drew strong opposition in the East and Midwest, culminating in his death by a mob while imprisoned in Illinois.

• The Mormons, realizing they would never be allowed to practice their faith in the East, made the long, difficult trek to the Salt Lake Valley led by Brigham Young.

• There, they settled and transformed the area from desert into farmland through extensive irrigation.

• The Mormons' success was largely attributable to the settlers' strong sense of community.

• The Second Great Awakening was only one source of the antebellum reform movements.

• By the 1820s and 1830s, most of the Founding Fathers were dead, but they left a legacy of freedom and equality, expressed in part in the Declaration of Independence as well as the Preamble to the Constitution.

• In the 1830s, "We, the People" still meant white males.

• Many women were active in the abolitionist movement, and it was their exclusion from participation at a worldwide antislavery convention held in London in 1840 that convinced women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott to hold the first women's rights convention in 1848 in Seneca Falls in upstate New York.

• Horace Mann was instrumental in pushing for public education and education reform in general. He lengthened the school year, established the first "normal school" for teacher training, and used the first standardized books in education.

• Before the 1830s, few whites fought aggressively for the liberation of the enslaved people.

• The Quakers believed slavery to be morally wrong and argued for its end.

• Most other antislavery whites sought gradual abolition, coupled with colonization, a movement to return Black people to Africa.

• The religious and moral fervor that accompanied the Second Great Awakening, however, persuaded more and more whites, particularly Northerners, that slavery was a great evil.

• White abolitionists divided into two groups: Moderates wanted emancipation to take place slowly and with the cooperation of slave owners, while immediatists wanted emancipation at once.

• Abolitionism is an important topic on every AP U.S. History Exam.

• But it is worth noting that, right up to the Civil War, abolitionists were widely considered extremists.

• Far and away the leading reform movement of the time was the temperance movement.

• Nearly all abolitionists believed in temperance; few supporters of temperance were abolitionists.

• The abolition movement succeeded, slavery is now illegal, but the success of the temperance movement was short-lived (Prohibition lasted only from 1920 to 1933).