Skill

• Skill refers to the learned capacity or proficiency to perform a specific task or activity effectively.

• It is acquired through practice, experience, and training.

• Characteristics: Skills are often observable and measurable.

  • They involve the application of knowledge and techniques in a particular context.

  • Skills can be categorized into various types, such as cognitive skills (thinking and problem-solving), motor skills (physical movements), and interpersonal skills (communication and teamwork).

Ability

• Ability, on the other hand, refers to the inherent or natural capacity to perform a particular task or activity.

• It is often considered to be more innate and less dependent on external training.

• Characteristics: Abilities are generally seen as underlying traits or talents that contribute to a person's aptitude in a specific area.

  • Unlike skills, abilities are not always directly observable or easily measurable.

  • Examples of abilities include spatial reasoning, verbal fluency, and mathematical aptitude.

Classifications of Skill

• Basic Skills: These are fundamental skills that form the foundation for more complex abilities.

  • Basic skills are usually the building blocks of more advanced actions.

  • Examples include basic locomotor skills like running or basic manipulative skills like catching a ball.

• Complex Skills: These skills involve a combination of basic skills and are often more intricate and demanding.

  • Complex skills may require greater coordination, precision, and decision-making.

  • Examples include advanced sports techniques like a golf swing or a basketball jump shot.

• Open Skills: These skills are performed in an unpredictable or changing environment.

  • The execution of the skill needs to be adaptable and responsive to external factors.

  • Examples include playing soccer, where the player must react to the movements of opponents and teammates.

• Closed Skills: These skills are performed in a controlled and stable environment where the conditions are relatively constant.

  • The performer has a pre-planned and consistent movement pattern.

  • Examples include shooting a free throw in basketball, where the conditions remain relatively stable.

• Self-paced Skills: The performer has control over the timing and execution of the skill.

  • The action is initiated by the individual based on their own decision-making.

  • Examples include serving in tennis or hitting a golf ball off a tee.

• Externally Paced Skills: The timing and execution of the skill are determined by external factors rather than the performer.

  • The individual must synchronize their actions with external cues.

  • Examples include a swimmer reacting to the starting signal or a sprinter reacting to the starter's gun.

• Gross Motor Skills: These involve the use of large muscle groups and are associated with activities requiring strength, power, and coordination.

  • Examples include running, jumping, or throwing.

• Fine Motor Skills: These involve the use of smaller muscle groups and are associated with precision and dexterity.

  • Examples include activities like handwriting, shooting a basketball with precision, or playing a musical instrument.

Types of Goals

• Typically, a goal is perceived as the outcome of a particular effort, and it should be compelling, reflecting something that an individual genuinely desires to accomplish.

• Goals can be straightforward and immediate, such as aiming to enjoy a session, or they can involve longer-term progress, as seen in the example of aspiring to run a marathon for improvement over an extended period.

• Performance goals: enable athletes to concentrate on aspects of their performance over which they have complete control.

  • For instance, a 200m sprinter might set a performance goal to surpass their personal best, or a hockey midfielder could aim to achieve their highest level in the multi-stage fitness test.

  • By emphasizing performance goals, athletes can zoom in on the specifics of their performance rather than solely fixating on the outcome of winning or losing.

• Outcome Goals: assist performers in concentrating on the broader objective of what they aim to achieve.

  • For example, a youth rugby player might set an outcome goal of being selected for a regional team by the end of the season, while a pole vaulter may strive to secure the first-place position at a major championship.

  • These goals encourage performers to consider the overarching achievement rather than just the details of their performance.

SMART Targets

• Specific – state exactly what will need to be done

• Measurable – clear what success will look like

• Accepted – decided on by all participants in the process

• Realistic – know it is practical – steps can be taken to do it

• Time bound – state when it will be achieved

Example of SMART Target

In this example, Person A's target is 'I want to be fit' and Person B's target is 'I want to compete at the Paralympics'.

Basic Information Processing Model

Input

• First stage

• Information is gained from the bodies senses and selective attention.

• The performer will pick out important input cues from the environment.

• Example: pick out the flight of the ball

Decision Making

• Second stage

• The decision process takes place by comparing the current situation, held in the short term memory, with previous experiences, held in the long term memory, to determine an appropriate action.

• In this decision making phase, the performer must decide what to do with the stimulus identified.

• Example: The performer will have to decide whether to move their feet into position.

Output

• Third stage

• The action is performed with reference to the movement pattern stored in long term memory.

  • Once the action is completed, the situation and result are stored in the long term memory for future reference.

• The performer must instruct his muscles to move accordingly so the catch can be executed.

• Example: The performer will coordinate limbs to catch the ball.

Feedback

• Fourth stage / Last stage

• Information received via intrinsic (self) or extrinsic (outside) sources is used to repeat the processes or adjust depending on success rate.

Use of Guidance and Feedback

Types of Guidance

• Visual: This is often used when a performer is just starting out in the learning process.

  • Learners can see the whole action and interpret it for themselves.

  • Forms of visual guidance includes:

    • Demonstration

    • Playback of a video clip

    • Observe technique from images or stills.

• Verbal: Terminology and phrases associated with certain skills can be made simple and straightforward in a clear verbal explanation.

  • Difficulty with verbal guidance:

    • Players must understand the basic terminology used

    • Remember the instructions

    • Interpret the words into actions

• Manual: This method is used when the skills learnt are dangerous or are complex.

  • Coaches or teachers will use a ‘hands on’ approach to ensure safety.

  • i.e. Gymnastics coach supporting back walkover.

• Mechanical: Mechanical guidance involves the use of equipment to help support the learner whilst practicing the skill.

  • i.e. The use of floats in swimming helps learners to develop leg kicking action in the water.

Feedback

• received either during or after a performance which if done well should lead to future improvement.

• Positive feedback: identifying what is good or correct about performance.

  • Advantage: Motivating particularly for beginners, highlights success meaning the performer will be likely to repeat the action or skill, reinforces the correct technique/method/tactic being used.

  • Disadvantage: Could suggest performance was better than it was, overconfidence, does not support the improvement of the skill.

• Negative feedback: Highlighting what is bad or incorrect about performance

  • Advantage: Enables coaches to provide guidance on how a skill can be performed better, helps performers to prioritize improvement, allows advanced/elite performers to reflect and improve.

  • Disadvantage: demotivating, beginners may struggle to know how to respond or give up.

• Extrinsic feedback: Received (externally) from outside of the performers body, eg from a coach/peer.

  • Advantage: Beginners need feedback from coaches to be made aware of technique

  • Disadvantage: Not always available, could be an unreliable source

• Intrinsic feedback: sometimes referred to as kinesthetic feedback, received via receptors in the muscles. Sensations that are (internally) felt by the performer, providing information from movement.

  • Advantage: experienced performers can make immediate adjustments

  • Disadvantage: Requires a high level of knowledge based on experience which beginners may not have.

• Knowledge of results: Information for performer about time, placing, result

  • Advantage: quick measure, allows to see how much success has occurred

  • Disadvantage: demotivating if poor results

• Knowledge of performance: Feedback on performance generally and technique.

  • Advantage: It can cover many different aspects within a performance so feedback can be detailed and focused. Normally based around technique, tactical choices or fitness related components.

  • Disadvantage: Can be hard to break a performance down to provide detailed feedback without experience.

Mental Preparation in Sport

• Arousal - refers to the degree of activation and alertness that a performer experiences.

• For instance, a judo player might experience high arousal moments before a bout and significantly lower arousal about an hour after the contest has concluded.

Inverted-U theory

• The 'inverted U' theory proposes that sporting performance improves as arousal levels increase but that there is a threshold point.

• Any increase in arousal beyond the threshold point will worsen performance.

• At low arousal levels, performance quality is low.

  • This is described as under-arousal or boredom and might be experienced by an elite tennis player playing a lowly ranked opponent.

• At medium arousal levels, sporting performance peaks.

  • This can be described as optimal arousal and might be experienced when a boxer gets themselves in the right 'zone' to perform at their best.

• At high arousal levels, performance quality deteriorates.

  • This can be described as panic and might explain why a football player performs very poorly when their team is losing 3-0.

• Achieving optimal arousal is crucial for athletes to deliver their best performances.

  • Arousal, distinct from anxiety, is a physiological response akin to excitement before an event.

  • It involves preparing the body for action, leading to increased heart rate, blood pressure, and heightened neural activity.

  • Termed as being "in the zone" or "psyched up," arousal ensures the body is alert and ready to perform.

  • Its impact on performance can be both positive and negative, contingent on the level and type of performance.

• In high-intensity contact sports, the optimal arousal level is higher compared to low-intensity non-contact sports.

  • For instance, a rugby league player necessitates a higher arousal level than an archer or gymnast.

  • Both the rugby player and the archer face suboptimal performance if their arousal levels are either too high or too low.

  • Hence, there exists an optimal arousal level specific to each sport.

• Regarding specific skills, more challenging skills like a handstand require lower arousal levels, whereas simpler skills like catching a large ball necessitate higher arousal levels.

  • Under arousal manifests as lethargy and a lack of motivation, while over arousal is marked by an inability to focus.

  • The optimal arousal level is often represented graphically as an inverted-U on a graph.

Stress Management Techniques

• Imagery: Creating pictures of a successful performance in our mind.

  • Can improve concentration, creates a feeling of movement and an emotional feeling e.g happiness/confidence.

  • Mainly used to lower stress and anxiety.

  • Example: Such as imagining lifting a trophy or scoring a goal.

• Mental rehearsal: Can involve both internal and external imagery.

  • External is picturing yourself from outside of the body.

  • Internal is imagining yourself doing the activity through your own eyes eg a movement pattern following the route in bobsleigh/motorsport.

  • This prepares the athlete for the event ahead reducing anxiety and preparing them for the movements/actions they need to perform.

• Selective attention: The ability to only focus upon the relevant information or stimuli for the execution of the skill.

  • EG. A penalty taker in football ignoring the noise from the crowd and distractions from the goal keeper to successfully score.

• Positive thinking: Sometimes called 'positive self-talk' involves the participant being positive about past experiences and performances and future efforts by talking to themselves or thinking how successful they might be.

  • Eg. A gymnastic telling themselves “they can do it” before performing a floor routine.

Aggression

• Direct Aggression: Direct aggression involves open and straightforward confrontations or actions with the intention of causing harm or asserting dominance.

  • It typically includes physical or verbal actions that are immediately visible and explicit.

• Example in Sport: A direct aggressive act in sports could be a player intentionally physically injuring an opponent through a hard tackle in soccer or a deliberate elbow in basketball.

  • Verbal taunts and threats on the field are also examples of direct aggression.

• Indirect Aggression: Indirect aggression, on the other hand, involves more subtle and covert methods to harm or manipulate others.

  • It may not be immediately apparent and can be expressed through passive-aggressive behavior, gossip, or undermining actions.

• Example in Sport: Indirect aggression in sports may manifest as spreading rumors about a teammate, deliberately excluding someone from team activities, or engaging in covert sabotage, such as subtly undermining a teammate's performance without being overly confrontational.

Characteristics of Introvert and Extrovert

Introvert:

• Characteristics:

  • Prefers solitude and quiet environments.

  • Energized by time alone; may find social interactions draining.

  • Thoughtful and reflective, often processing information internally.

  • May be reserved in group settings.

  • Enjoys deeper, one-on-one relationships.

• Sports Suited for Introverts:

• Individual Sports: Introverts often thrive in sports that allow them to work independently.

  • Examples: Tennis, swimming, golf, archery.

• Endurance Sports: Activities that require sustained focus and personal determination can be appealing.

  • Examples: Long-distance running, cycling, cross-country skiing.

• Mind Games: Sports that involve strategy and concentration can align with introverted traits.

  • Examples: Chess, table tennis.

Extrovert:

• Characteristics:

  • Thrives on social interactions and group activities.

  • Energized by external stimuli and social engagement.

  • Enjoys being the center of attention; expressive and outgoing.

  • Tends to process thoughts verbally and is comfortable in group settings.

  • Values a wide social circle and varied experiences.

• Sports Suited for Extroverts:

  • Team Sports: Extroverts often excel in sports that involve collaboration and interaction with others.

    • Examples: Soccer, basketball, volleyball, hockey.

  • High-Intensity Sports: Activities that provide an adrenaline rush and excitement may be appealing.

    • Examples: Rock climbing, martial arts, rugby.

  • Performance Sports: Sports where being in the spotlight is a central aspect can suit extroverted individuals.

    • Examples: Gymnastics, figure skating, cheerleading.

Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsically motivated athletes participate in sport for internal reasons, particularly pure enjoyment and satisfaction, and intrinsically motivated athletes typically concentrate on skill improvement and growth.

• Behaviors Related to Intrinsic Motivation:

  • Better task-relevant focus

  • Fewer changes (ups and downs) in motivation

  • Less distraction

  • Less stress when mistakes are made

  • Increased confidence and self-efficacy

  • Greater satisfaction

Extrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic motivation may come from social sources, such as not wanting to disappoint a parent, or material rewards, such as trophies and college scholarships.

• Extrinsically motivated athletes tend to focus on the competitive or performance outcome.

• An overemphasis on extrinsic motivation may lead athletes to feel like their behavior is controlled by the extrinsic rewards.

  • On the other hand, athletes may continue to feel like they control their own behavior even with the presence of extrinsic rewards.

  • These two major types of extrinsic motivation are highlighted here.

Behavior controlled by the extrinsic rewards

• Motivation Based on

  • Extrinsic rewards

  • Avoiding punishment or guilt

  • “Should” do something

• Behaviors

  • Less interest, value, and effort towards achievement

  • Anxiety

  • Difficulty coping with failure

• Behavior controlled by the athlete

  • Motivation based on

  • Internal control of behaviors

  • Choice to participate even with extrinsic rewards

• Behaviors (Similar to intrinsic motivation)

  • Greater interest, enjoyment, and effort towards achievement

  • Desire to learn new skills or strategies

  • Positive coping styles