What is Aquinas’ first way?

The unmoved mover. “It is certain,and evident that in the world some things are in motion” they must have been set into this motion. This is efficient cause of God

What is Aquinas’ second way?

The uncaused causer, everything is caused by something else, there must be an original one - this is God

What is Aquinas’ third way?

A necessary veins, all things in nature are limited in their existence. They have a beginning and end , there can not be a point where nothing exists so one thing must be infinite- this is God. Contingent necessity

What is the Kalam argument ?

Originally an islamic idea from Al Ghazali , developed by american theologian (21st century) p1/everything that begins has a causep2/the universe began to existc/since no scientific explanation must be God

What is the library analogy?

Imagine a library of infinite books, all are either black or red, but if you add all the black ones together they add to infinity and the same with the red. This is irrational and so cannot be true.

What support did Father Fredrick Coplestone give?

In a 1984 radio debate with Russel he supports the inductive knowledge used and supports contingency.

What support did Leibiniz give?

Should be believed due to sufficient reason. He rejected an infinite universe.

What argument did Quinten smith give?

There is no evidence that even if there were a prime mover, causer or necessary beins that this would be the theistic God.

What arguments did Hume give?

1/ there is no reason to believe everything has a cause2/’fallacy of composition’ assumes that the universe is a sum of its parts3/why can't the universe be infinite if God can?4/doesn’t prove theistic or intelligent God

What challenge did Kant give?

In his ‘Critique of pure reason’ said that the cosmological argument depends on the ontological

What did Bertrand Russel say in his 1984 radio debate with Coplestone?

1/”we cannot reasonably posit that existence of God for ?”2/Universe can be eternal3/Unnecessary over complication so Occam's razor . Hick “the most natural state of affairs is nothing”

What did swinburne say God is ?

Is God DERE NECESSARY (specifically)or DE DICTO NECESSARY (any supreme leader will do ) ?

What challenge did Kenny give?

Newton disproves Aquinas’ first way, somethings like people move on their own

What did Frederick Tennant theorise?

The anthropic principle: universe has precise components made for intelligent life, The process of evolution leading to human life was a deliberate plan. This marries Darwin and the divide to produce a ‘Goldilocks’ UniverseThe aesthetic argument: beauty is unnecessary so God must of made it for humans to enjoy life

What did Micheal Behe (discovery institute) add?

He identified that some biochemical systems were irreducibly complex- like a prokaryotic cell and its flagellum. According to Behe we could not of developed these systems, all parts must be there for them to work

What argument did William Paley give?

There is a make for everything in the world so there must be a maker for the universe. He used the analogy of a watch,, if you walked along a beach, never having seen a watch before, then saw a watch on the beach you would wonder at its complexity and the cleverness of the maker. This is the same with the universe - God must be an intelligent maker

What did archbishop William Temple say?

Supported that natural selection and evolution were a designer perfecting his world

What arguments did Hume outline in his book ‘dialogues concerning Natural religion’?

1/humans have limited experience2/the more analogies we use for god the more Anthropic we make him3/No evidence to support the God of classical theism

What are some strengths of the teleological?

SimpleWe can see designHume even admits it could be designed

What support did Arthur Brown give?

The ozone layer must be there to protect humans so we can live

What is MIlls 'dysteleological argument’?

Due to evil and suffering in the world it must not of been designed by an all powerful,loving and knowing creator

What is the epicurean hypothesis presented by Hume?

At the time of creation the universe consisted of random motion of particles, the initial state was chaos but eventually patterns formed

What argument did Herbert Spencer name?

Natural selection

In what book does Anelm outline the ontological argument?

In proslogion, particularly 2 and 3 . However, it was first written as a prayer not an argument

What Psalm does he use to start?

“Truly there is a God, although the fool has said in his heart ‘there is no God”

What is the ontological arguments main basis?

God is Than That Which Nothing Greater Can Be Conceived . He is the greatest possible thing one can imagine and so must exist. Anselm says it is possible to exist in the mind alone or in the mind and reality , however as god is TTWNGCBC he must exist in both.

Using logic write out the argument

P1/Beings exist in both mind + realityP2/God is the best thing that can be thought ofC/God must exist as he is TTWNGCBC

What is Anselm's painter's example?

A painter, before painting something into reality must exist in the painter mind

Anselm says that “god cannot be conceived to not exist” what was his next logical step?

God has necessary existence

How does Rene Descartes develop this idea?

In the early 17th century, he said God is ‘the most perfect being’. When talking about a theistic God all his attributes are perfect, so too must his existence be. Existence is a predicate of God

How does Descartes relate this to triangles ?

a triangle must have three sides by definition, similarly god is impossible to think of without the attribute of necessary existence

What does malcolm add to the discussion?

That God cannot start or stop existing as he is TTWNGCBC so must necessarily exist or necessarily not exist at all.

What challenge does Gaunilo of Marmoutier present?

He presents ‘in the defence of the fool’ using ‘reductio ad absurdum’. He uses islands, saying that if this were an island a new better island can be thought of each time meaning there can always be and island greater than an island which is said to be ‘TTWNGCBC’

What is the evaluation of Gaunilo's argument?

Islands are contingent on God + creation so Anslem says that God is a different kettle of fish, God as TTWNGCBC must exist

What did Aquinas’ challenge say?

People have different concepts of God + creation so you cannot definitely say ‘god is…’ God exists must be proved a posteriori .

How did Kant challenge the ontological ?

Said it was inaccurate to say existence was a predicate, as it doesn’t give any more or less description about something. My car is green vs my car exists

Who was Epicuras and what did he say?

Pre socratic greek philosopher who pointed out you cannot have an all loving, all powerful and all knowing God and evil.

What is the evidential problem of evil?

William Rowe asks the question why there would be such intense suffering in the world if God could stop it.Gregory S Paul uses statistics of miscarriage to say that God would have to deny the unborn of free will but then kill them - this is true evil

What is the inconsistent triad?

John L. Mackie called this as an ‘inconsistent triad’; evil and suffering are incompatible with the notions of omnipotence and omnibenevolence.

What is the paradox of omnipotence?

‘Can an omnipotent being make things which he cannot subsequently control’ or, ‘make rules which bind himself?’ To answer either yes or no would compromise omnipotence. Indeed, for Mackie, the notion of omnipotence seemed illogical in our world.

What is a theodicy?

A theodicy is a defence, usually of God’s traditional characteristics, in the face of the existence of evil and suffering.

What Did Augustine say about creation?

God is the creator of the world, god is perfect and so the world must be too. In genesis, it says all that was made was ‘good’ so evil was not created by God.

What is a privation?

A lack of. Evil is a privation of good according to Augustine as God could not create a thing of evil.

What did Augustine say about ‘the fall’?

The fall is a consequence of Adam and Eve's disobedience, causing natural and moral evil. He quote ‘the turning itself is wicked’. As all humans were ‘seminally present’ in adam all humans are guilty

How does Augustine see humankind?

Corrupted by sin.

What is suffering?

Either caused by sin or punishment for sin

What does Brain Davies say?

Evil is an absence of good.

What did plantiga say ?

Without free will we would be robots so we must have it even if we caused bad

What are some strengths of Augstine theodicy?

1.Natural evil is necessary for genuine free will2.Compatible with the bible and conservative and fundamental christians3.Plantiga says humans have to choose good or it is not true good

What did Hick say ?

‘The idea of an unqualified good creature commiting a sin is self-contradictory and unintelligible, it is not logical’

What are the scientific issues with Augustine's theodicy?

Evolution + formation of worldSeminally present isn't valid

What are the moral issues with Augustine's theodicy?

Hell is a part of the universe, this means God must have already anticipated that the world would go wrong.Limited atonement is morally wrong, predestination issue and the elect

What are the logical issues with Augustine's theodicy?

Schleiermacher argued it was a logical contradiction to say a perfect world could go wrong

Who is John Hick?

20th century philosopher

What phrase does Irenaus focus on from genesis?

Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness

How Does Genesis 1:26 Influence Irenaus’ theodicy?

Humans are created in the image of God, but humans must grow into the likeness of God

Why didn’t God make us and the world perfect in the first place?

Although god could have, because morality is developed through hard work it is more valuable than a pre-programmed robotic morality.To genuinely develop morally we must live in an imperfect world with natural evil.As hitting someone in the face would be no different from a high five in a perfect world.

How did Swinbourne develop this idea?

Many of the virtues we admire most are only real because of suffering in the world and are only valued because we the converse suffering

How did Hick develop the theodicy?

His idea of soul making.God could intervene but it would undermine human freedom and limit our development.This is why God created the world at an epistemic distance. I.e deliberately made it so his existence is not certain.

What are some strengths of the Irenaean theodicy?

It works with evolution wellProvides recognisable and achievable goal for humanity

What did Basil Mithchell say in support?

Jesus died to take away our sin, so we can go to heaven which is support by eschatological justice

What did D Z Phillips argue?

It is never justifiable to harm someone in order to help them. However, this is precisely what the medical profession does when operating on someone

What are some weaknesses of the Irenaean theodicy?

At odds with biblical accountThe significance of christs sacrifice is diminishedIs it fair for suffering to justify a God like futureLike Row and paul argue the gravity of suffering outweighs the future

What are the two types of experiences ?

Direct - God is directly revealed to a personInDirect - things about god prompted in real life, could be prayer

What is a mystical religious experience?

Used to describe experience of direct contact or oneness with god or ultimate reality.Theresa of Avila said she saw ‘christ at my side’

What is a conversion experience?

A religious experience that causes one to convert to christianity.Two types: Gradual and SuddenAugustine “pick it up and read” storyPaul to saul on the road to Damascus

What is a vision experience?

They can be corporeal (physical) in nature (Saul – ‘bright light’), or spiritual.Visions can be collective (Angel of Mons) or individual **(St. Bernadette).**Teresa of Avila (16th century nun) suggested that the highest form of a vision was a sense of God’s presence without sensory aspects.

What is a prayer experience ?

Prayer is communication with God. This ‘communication’ can be an independent request from the devotee, a form of praise or, alternatively, take on a more mystical and collaborative encounter with the divine object.Teresa of Avila saw the ultimate goal of prayer as union with God.She wrote of types and stages of prayer through the use of two analogies- A garden being watered and the interior castle

What does non cognitive mean?

subjective

Who developed the verification principle?

The logical positivist 1920 , distinctly Carnap and Shlick

Who was Ludwig Wittgeinstein?

A logical positivist, part of the vienna circle who wrote the ‘tractatus’ which was used to develop the verification principle

What does analytical mean?

Proving something by evidence

What does synthetic mean?

A proposition capable of being true or false

What is a blick?

We experience from our experiences.Josh doesn’t like tomatoes:his blick

What is the verification principle?

Only cognitive statements are meaningful. I.e if they can be verified to be true or false. So “the cat sat on the mat” = meaningful but “i love you” is not

Who wrote the weak verification principle?

A J Ayer in 1936

What is a strong verification principle?

Must have evidence and be meaningful

What is the weak verification principle?

Historical statements can no longer be proved so are weak statements. “Napoleon was short” cannot be truly verified. Ayer decided it was acceptable if it could be shown as probable

What are some strong criticisms of the verification principle?

“The meaning of a statement is its method of verification” cannot be verified itself.It is not analytic so cannot be shown to be true of logical arguments.From about 1950 the logical positivist scrapped it.

What is Hicks' criticism of the verification principle?

Hick argued that when we die the truth of God’s existence will be revealed so can be verified - he calls this eschatological verification

What is via negativa ?

You can only describe God by saying what he is not. Used by mystics such as StJohn of the cross and even augustine. God is not a hedgehog

What is the falsification principle?

An idea is meaningless and useless if it knows what empirical evidence could count against it

Who came up with the falsification principle?

Karl Popper

How did Anthony Flew apply the verification principle?

Applied to religious statements to conclude they are meaningless

What is the key critique of Flew’s application?

Nothing can count against religious statements, they can neither be proved true or false

What argument did Richard Hare give against the falsification principle?

Bliks. Religious statements do not aim to be cognitive but to influence behaviour, therefore they are not discredited by the falsification principle.

What argument did Mitcahell give against the falsification principle?

Certain things can be meaningful even if they can’t be falsified. He said the falsification principle ignored the element of faith, believers wont turn away from their faith even with counter evidence

What argument did Swinbourne give against the falsification principle?

A concept can be meaningful even though falsifying the statement is not possible.Toy cupboard analogy - understand toys come out at night.Religious language - understand God, without falsifying it

What are Aquinas’ three ways that language is used?

Univocal- language with one meaningEquivocal - language with many meanings (bat,cold,fit)Analogical- language based on worldly experience, but compared to God. All religious language.

What is Analogy of attribution?

Worldly things are compared to God.This is because he is their efficient cause.

What is the analogy of proportion?

Things have qualities proportional to their nature. God is the most Good.John HIck gave an example of the faithfulness of dogs as compared to humans

Who is Ian Ramsay?

Bishop and professor at Oxford

How did Ramsay divide analogical language?

Models: a term for experience that can be applied to God (Similarities)Qualifiers: results in recognition of Gods essential difference from us ( differences )

What are Ramsays 'Disclosures’?

Religious language allows a disclosure of what has been discerned about God.1/ the use of model+qualifier encourages the person concerned with an attitude of spirituality and commitment.2/Gods corresponding disclosure means that everyday experiences have new meaning

Explain some strength of analogy

1/Avoids issues caused by the use of univocal and equivocal language2/Analogies use of observable experience makes the language cognative3/Analogy allows religion to not be taken literally.

Explain some of the weakness of analogy

1/What can be said of God is limited2/Hicks analogy doesn’t work because neither human nor dog contains the idea of infinity3/you can describe God negatively

What challenge does Hume give for analogy?

In dialogues concerning natural religion (1979) challenged the scientific analogies. He said it only goes so far, an analogy requires some knowledge but we have no concrete knowledge of God.

What book do Tillich write?

Dynamics of faith (1957)

What did Tiliich believe symbols did for religion?

He said that symbols are how humans connect with God, as he cannot be known in a personal way.

What are some examples of symbols?

> The fish/Ichthys, a symbol used for early christians to communicate with one another without persecution> The Eucharist> Painting of the sacred heart> The American flag> The deathly hallows

What were Tillich's 6 characteristics of symbols?

Point beyond themselvesParticipate in what the point to Open up new levels of reality Unlock new dimension of our soulCannot be manufactured arbitrarilyGrow and die

What is the role of symbols according to Tillich?

To point towards something deeper than themselves

Who was John Randall?

American philosopher and contemporary of Randall

What book did Randall write? And what did it outline?

“The role of Knowledge in western religion” which outlines his four functions of symbols

What are his four functions of symbols?

MotivationSocialCommunicationClarification and Disclosure

What is the motivation function?

To arouse emotion and stir people to act

What is the social function?

Bringing communities together, providing shared identity ( think football )

What is the clarification and disclosure function?

Revealing insight into the divine

What is the communication function?

Expressing emotional aspects of an experience

What does Randall think the scientific language’s function is?

To describe facts about the world

What does Randall think religious language’s function is?

To represent mythological and religious belief that gives insight into the ,meaning and purpose of life and experience

Who say and fill in the gaps “they make us _______ to the qualities of the world ______ and they _____ our ____”

Randallreceptive , encountered , open , hearts

What advantage does Carl Jung prove?

proves that symbols are not temporary. He says symbols are archetypes of human experience which appear many times throughout history and are ingrained in our psyche

What is anthropomorphism and is there a danger of it in religious language?

Anthropomorphism is attributing human characteristics to something non human (such as God) . Symbol avoids the danger of this, this is seen as an advantage as it still allows believers to experience a deep sense of meaning in their lives through the use of symbol

What advantage does Tillich see in his second characteristic ?

Symbolic Language participates in what it points to, through this participation we can emotionally connect with God through this language.

Complete the sentenceIt _____ the use of one ____ statement about what is meant by ___ without the need for _________ concepts

Permits , literal , God , metaphysical

What weakness did Paul Edwards claim?

claimed that Tillich's thought is cognitively meaningless. Edwards says that Tillich conveys absolutely nothing. He believes empirical language is all that is true

What did John Hick accuse Tillich of?

The notion that symbols participate in what they represent. For example saying ‘God is love’ .

What did William Alston criticise Tillich for?

for using the words ‘sign’ and ‘symbol’ differently than we normally do. For example Tillich rejected mathematical symbols such as plus and minus and insisted they are signs.

What did George Furgeson say was wrong with Tillich's theory?

A sign represents. A symbol resembles. It acquired a deeper meaning than the sign, because it is more completely identified with what it represents, and its character is derived from what is known by it”

What is ‘sitz im leben’ ?

‘Situation in life’, which is important to understand the ultimate concern of the author and interpret the myth.

What do myths speak about?

Meaning of human existence in a confusing or mysterious world The significance or meaning of empirical events or recurring problemsThe nature of God and the human relationship with him The Ultimate destiny of humanity

What are creation myths?

Speaking of a time before historical records/human experience.

What is used for representation in creation myths fromEx nihiloWaterLandHuman life

Signifies chaos, the unknowns and creative power of the divineRepresents mystery, life sustaining and destructive powerRepresents order, stability and control Represents purpose, uniqueness and relationship to the divine

What is in myths of good and evil?

good – represented by light, order, warmth, and foodevil – represented by darkness, chaos, cold, and starvation.

What is included in heroic myths?

1. Characters suffer adversity2. The hero takes a risk3. There is triumph and resolution.Many heroic myths have a link with the sun (solar heroes) where an agent of order is destroyed by agents of chaos yet resurrects in victory against enemies

Where might myths originate from?

Myths may stem from the collective unconscious and be archetypal.• They are a response to fear of the unknown or of things outside our control.• They are a response to fear of the unknown or of things outside our control.• They do not challenge science but bring spiritual or emotional insight to help us understand our place in the universe.• Myths should be understood not as true or false, but living or dead. A living myth may help bind communities together, shape human social or ethical behaviour or provide a sense of purpose in life.

What is the contrast challenge?

Myths from different cultures or faiths may offer contrasting ideas about the meaning of life. There is no way of knowing which is true or false e.g. ∘ Genesis 1 – humans are created purposely through divine will ∘ Japanese Ainu creation myth – humans evolved from a polar bear god.

What is the issue with changing myths?

As a ‘sitz im leben’ changes, the meaning of myths change. It becomes unclear what the basis of faith is e.g. John 21:1-14 (the miraculous catch of fish) is it: a) A call to Christians to evangelise? b) A message of Jesus’ humanity and understanding of the human struggle?

What was Bultmann concerned about?

demythologising scripture to find the true message, but it is unclear which parts are to be set aside and which should remain. • The meaning of a myth may conflict with science, even if it is not understood literally, e.g. creation myths may convey God’s creative power, but conflict with the idea that life came about through chance and adaption.

What did Jung argue?

that myth is essential for good mental health as it enables us to individuate successfully and make sense of a confusing world

In what book did wittgenstein outline his ideas on language being truthful?

Tractatus logico philosophy published in 1921

What does he outline in his second book, philosophical investigations, and when was it written?

He explores the idea of language usage in different contexts. For example the word ‘bat’ means something different in a game of baseball rather than in a cave.Meaning is to do with relationships

What is Wittgenstiens key focus of language?

Function

Are words intrinsically meaningful?

NO, they mean something to someone but not everyone.

Explain his analogy of a tool box

Language is like a tool box, the tools have different jobs and need to be handled differently. In the same way, language has a wide variety of functions. For example, to tell a joke, to ask questions, to give direction or to narrate. He invites his readers to think of language in terms of a game.

How does this relate to playing games?

We learn to play games by picking up the rules. When someone explains the rules to us, we follow them, but we really understand them once we start to play. Once we are involved we can recognise that some words are more important than others.

Explain the analogy of honeymoon pebbles

Most people would say pebbles on a beach are not meaningful, but if someone had picked one up on their honeymoon and kept it on their windowsill ever since, it would be meaningful to them but not to anyone else.

How did Wittgenstein describe language and game objectives?

He said that language and games, both have an objective to achieve, we learn to use the language of the context we find ourselves in, and the more engaged we are in a group activity , the better we understand the language: and the better we understand it, the more meaningful it is to us.

What is lebensform?

A ‘form of life’ - whatever is the context.

What approach is this to language?

NON-COGNITIVE opposite to his previous cognitive ideas

How does this link to randall?

Like john randall he is adopting a coherence theory of meaning, where something is meaningful if it coheres with a set of beliefs.

How did he criticises his earlier work with this?

Logical positivism failed to capture the depth and complexities of language, concentrating far too heavily on a very small part of how it is used.

What did welsh philosopher D Z Phillips (1934-2006) say?.

Argued that religious language was a just a way of defining the rules of the game of religion. 'God is love’ is not a description of an actual being, but a way of showing how the word ‘God’ is to be used.

What does Peter Dovovan say in his book “religious language’ about language games?

The analogy of games is a useful way of understanding how the language of religion has a special meaning. As with a game, the more people participating in religion, the more understanding of the language and subtleties of its use.

What is Jurgen Habermas' criticism of language games?

Wittgenstein fail to grasp that relationships exist between competent communicators.The games analogy is weak because one person is able to conceal their intentions; if we were to do this the latter communication would break down. Therefore the players must accept the legitimacy of the rules of the game, but Habermas' players are capable of assessing the legitimacy of social conventions as part of playing the game.

What criticism does Rush Rhees (wittgenstein's contemporary) outline in his book ‘wittgenstein's builders’ ?

The analogy between language and games fails as an explanation of meaning. Although language has rules like a game these can be broken to convey meaning, they also exist to better communicate whereas in a game they exist to allow a judge to declare a winner.A game can be explained to someone in language but language can only be explained to someone in more language.