Change And Paradigm Shifts

• The history of Human Services is unfortunately dark and includes the following:

  • Woman being burned as witches because they were mentally ill.

  • Men being placed in a bathtub filled with iron filings to cure them of mental illness.

  • Experiments that removed sections of people’s brains to change the way in which they think.

• In 1962 T. S. Kuhn Wrote the book called “The Structure Of Scientific Revolutions.”

  • The book included Kuhns concept of Paradigm shift.

  • According to Kuhn, knowledge builds upon itself, and new discoveries are based on the evolution of past knowledge.

• The field of Human Services has gone and will continue to undergo paradigm shifts.

Psychology, Social Work, And Counseling And Their Impact On Human Services

• The modern-day interpretation of the psyche emerged only in the last 200 years.

  • Psyche has been applied to numerous mental health professions, including Counseling, social work, and psychology.

• Human Services borrowed from the three main fields: Counseling, social work, and psychology, and serves as its foundation.

  • Human Services borrowed the understanding of the counseling process and a rich appreciation for testing and research from psychology.

  • From the social work field, Human Services embraced deep care for the underprivileged and an awareness of the power of social and family systems.

  • And from the counseling profession, Human Services incorporates a holistic and wellness approach that attempts to understand the individual within the context of his or her career, love relationships, and group interactions.

A Brief History of the Psychology Profession

• The field of psychology has a rich history rooted in religion, philosophy, and science, and the concepts that have evolved from psychology often represent the underpinnings of many, if not all, of the social service fields today.

• Hippocrates was one of the first individuals in recorded history to reflect on the human condition.

  • Hippocrates advocated a different view, and some of his suggestions for the treatment of the human condition might even be considered modern by today’s standards.

• Plato’s ideas reminisced ones that come from modern-day psychoanalysis texts.

  • Plato believed that introspection and reflection were the keys to understanding knowledge and reality and that dreams and fantasies were substitutes for desires not satisfied.

  • Plato thought that problems of the human condition have physical, moral, and spiritual origins.

• Aristotle is considered to be the first psychologist by some.

  • Some believe he was the first psychologist because he attempted to objectively study knowledge, and his writings were psychological in nature.

  • Aristotle wrote essays on how people learn through association and the role that the senses play in learning.

• Augustine & Thomas Aquinas highlighted consciousness, self-examination, and inquiry as philosophies that dealt with the human condition; however, little is written about the psychological nature during the 800 years between the dates in which they lived.

  • The discrepancy in missing material during their time is partly the result of the rise of Christianity, which renewed the focus on the supernatural and advanced movement away from any attempts to view the person objectively.

  • The Renaissance and the era of modern philosophy arose in Europe after the period of silence; the result was renewed interest in greek philosophies and a new interest in the idea of questioning the nature of the human condition.

• Shortly after the Renaissance, modern psychology emerged in the early to mid-1800s.

• Wilhelm Wundt & Sir Francis Galton were two of the first experimental psychologists.

  • Wilhelm Wundt & Sir Francis Galton created laboratories that they used to explore the differences among people, such as variations in height, head size, and reaction time.

• The natural outgrowth of the psychology movement was the era of testing, which led to individuals’ traits and abilities being compared using assessments.

• One thing that came out of the era of testing was Alfred Binet and his development of the first individual intelligence test.

  • The French Department of Education used Alfred Binet’s Test to separate children of average intelligence from those who were “feeble-minded.”

  • This influenced ability tests such as school achievement tests and personality tests to be developed.

• In Human Services, Tests are essential for obtaining a deeper understanding of our clients.

• The start of the testing movement paralleled the rise in psychoanalysis.

  • Psychoanalysis was the first comprehensive approach to therapy.

  • Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud.

• Sigmund Freud was influenced by people such as Fran Mesmer, who practiced the new phenomenon called hypnosis.

• During this time, mental illness was generally thought to be of a physical nature, and treatments for mental illness often were quite odd

  • when some individuals with certain kinds of physical illnesses were placed under a hypnotic trance, their ailments would disappear, suggesting the illness had psychological origins.

• Freud’s Development of Psychoanalysis was revolutionary and continues to profoundly affect the ways in which we conceptualize client problems.

• Alfred Adler & Erik Erikson developed theories that were humanistically based and stressed the influences of social forces on the development of the individual.

• Today’s approaches to psychotherapy are either an outgrowth or a reflection of Freud’s psychoanalytic approach.

• A significant expansion was seen in the 20th century in the field of psychology.

• The American Psychological Association (APA), which was founded by G. Stanley Hall more than 100 years ago, has expanded dramatically and today is a major force in the social service field.

• The field of psychology continues to lead the way in the development of new theories that serve as the basis for working with individuals and attempting to explain normal and abnormal behavior.

A Brief History of the Social Work Profession

• The field of social work grew out of concern for the underprivileged and deprived in society.

• In contrast to psychology which focused more on understanding the nature of the person, social work originated with the desire to help the destitute.

• Prior to the 17th century, providing relief to the poor was a voluntary act that was usually overseen by the church.

  • Due to the dismal social conditions in England, the government under Henry VIII established the first systems of social welfare.

  • The name given to this social welfare system was known as the “Poor Laws.”

  • The Poor Laws established local overseers of the poor who were responsible for finding work for the poor, aiding those who couldn’t work, and providing shelter or “Almshouses” for those who couldn’t take care of themselves.

  • The Poor Laws later became a model for social welfare programs.

• As a carryover from the English system, local governments in the United States enacted laws to help the poor during the colonial period.

• During the 1800s, as populations in cities grew, an increasingly large underclass developed in the United States.

  • Charities couldn’t meet the needs of all the individuals.

  • Due to the increasing large underclass that developed, politicians faced mounting pressure to create specialized institutions.

  • Because of the mounting pressure, Reform schools, lunatic asylums, and other specialized institutions were established.

• Two major movements came about to help the underprivileged: Charity organization societies (COSs) and the settlement movement.

  • COSs maintained lists of volunteers who would enter the poorer districts of cities, become acquainted with the people, aid in educating the children, give economic advice, and generally assist in alleviating the conditions of poverty.

  • Usually, the poor were not given money but rather advice, support, and, at times, some necessities.

  • The volunteers were referred to as “Friendly Visitors.”

  • Sometimes “Friendly Visitors.” would spend years assisting one family.

  • The COSs are seen as the beginning of social casework.

  • The settlement movement was instigated by staff members who lived in the communities where they sought to help the poor and immigrants.

  • Settlements claimed to deal in brotherhood, not philanthropy.

  • The settlements spirit was fraternalistic, not paternalistic

  • The settlement learned from a common lot of the disinherited.

  • Settlement workers would come in time to help slum dwellers express themselves and articulate their desires.

• These idealistic young staff members believed in community action and tried to persuade politicians to provide better services for the poor.

• The Hull House was one of the best-known settlement houses, which was established by Jane Addams in 1899 in Chicago.

• Jane Addams was the first American woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize.

• Articles and books concerned with methods of adequately meeting the need of the underclass emerged out of the mass involvement.

• The development of these casebooks and spearheaded by Mary Richmond at the turn of the century, established the first social work training program at Columbia University.

• Starting in the 1940s and continuing to the present, there has been an increased emphasis on understanding social and family systems. As such, these systems became a natural focus for many social work programs.

• In 1955, numerous social work organizations merged to form the National Association of Social Workers (NASW).

• In 1960 NASW established the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW), which sets standards of practice for masters-level social workers.

• Social workers can be found in various social service settings, hospitals, mental health centers, and homeless shelters.

• The Human Service field had a reputation of being a woman's occupation due to it being where many women found a sense of meaning during the 1800s when women did not work outside the home; this, however, has changed.

• The beginning of Social work echoes the essence of what today’s Human Service professional does.

  • Just like the early Social Worker, the Human service professional helps the poor, the deprived, the underprivileged, and the mentally ill.

  • Similarly to the early Social Worker, the modern Human Services Professional puts an emphasis on support, advocacy, and caretaking.

A Brief History of the Counseling Profession

• The Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of tests set the stage for the beginning of the counseling profession.

• Frank Parson was a leader in the guidance movement.

• Frank Parson is considered the founder of vocational guidance.

• The use of tests by teachers & administrators in schools and the use of vocational guidance is what led to the founding of the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA),

• As early as 1911, Harvard University offered the first graduate courses for guidance specialists; soon thereafter, counselors were certified in Boston and New York.

• Carl Rogers and his Nondirective Humanistic approach greatly affected the field of counseling.

• The start of WWII caused an increased need for counselors and psychologists to work with veterans.

  • Because this increased need arose, counselors began working outside schools more and broadly practicing the new humanistic approach to counseling.

• In the 1950s, the field of counseling experienced its most dramatic change.

  • The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958 was a direct response to the Soviet Union’s launch of the world’s first satellite, Sputnik. It funded the expansion of school counseling programs to identify gifted students. As a result, school counselors at the middle and secondary levels proliferated.

• During the same time in the 1950s, The American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) was founded.

• During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society initiatives funded many social service programs.

  • This came about partly in response to the growing need for counselors.

  • During this time, counselors were increasingly working in mental health, rehabilitation, higher education, and other related disciplines.

  • During the same decade, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES), a division of APGA, delineated standards for master’s-level counseling programs.

• The end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s saw a new approach to training counselors, known as microcounseling skills training.

  • These new packaged ways of training helpers focused on learning specific skills, one at a time.

  • The results showed that basic helping skills could be learned in this manner in a short period of time and that the practice of such skills would positively affect the counseling relationship.

History Of The Human Service Profession

The Emerging Need For Human Service Practitioners

• In 1946 Congress passed the National Mental Health Act, which led to the creation of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

• The founding of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) represented the first real effort by the federal government to examine mental health issues.

  • The founding of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) also led to increased research and training in the field of mental health.

• Shortly after the creation of the NIMH came the Mental Health Study Act of 1955, which was a board-based effort to study the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

• One of the results of the research stemming from the Mental Health Study Act of 1955 was Congress’s passing of the Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963

  • This passed legislation greatly changed how mental health services in the United States would be delivered by providing federal funds for the creation of comprehensive mental health centers across the country.

• Out of the turmoil of the 1960s came landmark civil rights and social change legislation, such as President Johnson’s Great Society legislation.

  • As a result of this broad federal program, a large number of civil rights laws were passed, and numerous economic and social programs were launched.

  • Some programs and laws that were launched include the Manpower Development and Training Act, Job Corps, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Head Start, the Work Incentive Program, the War on Poverty Program, Medicare and Medicaid, the Voting Rights Act, and more.

The Development of Associate And Bachelor-Level Human Service Programs

• Dr. Harold McPheeters of the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) received a grant from NIMH for the development of mental health programs at community colleges in the southern region of the United States.

• McPheeters is considered to be the founder of the Human Service field.

• During the 1980s and early 1990s, President Ronald Reagan’s administration moved toward funding social service agencies through the use of federal block grants.

  • Block grants gave local and state governments specific amounts of money to fund broad services, such as mental health services, community development, and the police.

• During the mid-1970s, funding from NIMH and SREB became available, offering workshops and conferences to explore the possibility of offering a bachelor’s degree in human services. Shortly after, during the 1980s, bachelor’s degrees in human services began to proliferate.

Professional Organizations in Human Services Arise

• With dozens of human service programs being established throughout the country, a professional organization was needed to meet the needs of these new professionals.

  • From This came the founding of the National Organization of Human Services (NOHS)

• Shortly after the NOHS was founded, the Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE) was formed in 1979.

• Some of the major functions of CSHSE are as follows

  • Maintaining national standards in human service education

  • Accrediting associate-, bachelor-, and master-level human service programs

  • Providing a directory of human service education programs

  • Providing special reports and a monograph series dealing with the human service field

  • Providing workshops and conferences for human service education

  • Helping to establish credentialing processes for human service professionals

Human Services at the Turn of the 20th Century

• When terrorism struck the American homeland, President George W. Bush committed the United States to the War on Terrorism. Later in that same decade, during the serious economic recession, many were concerned that human service programs would be impacted and that cuts in their funding would deleteriously affect services for the poor, destitute, and mentally ill.

  • Although Cutbacks did happen, programs largely remained intact, and the need for them continued.

• In 2007 CSHSE and the Center for Credentialing in Education (CCE) developed their first certification credential: the Human Services—Board Certified Practitioner (HS-BCP).

Current Issues In Human Services

• When a recent special topics section of the Journal of Human Services requested proposals focused on current issues, the editors received more than 80 proposals, most of which did not have overlapping content.

• The current issues in the human service fields range drastically and include the following topics.

  • Accreditation

  • Adolescence

  • Advocacy

  • Case management

  • College readiness

  • Compassion fatigue

  • Disaster and trauma

  • Ethical codes

  • Field placements

  • Foster care

  • Geographic information systems (GIS)

  • Health care reform

  • Holistic counseling

  • Homelessness

  • Human trafficking

  • Immigration

  • Intellectual disabilities

  • LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning) issues

  • Leadership

  • Mental illness

  • Military and their families

  • Natural disasters

  • Creative/expressive helping

  • Credentialing

  • Crisis, disaster, and trauma training

  • Critical incidence stress

  • Cultural competence

  • Data collection disasters

  • Neurobiology

  • Older persons

  • Parental rights

  • Parental rights

  • Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

  • Poverty

  • Report writing

  • Rural populations

  • Self-help groups

  • Service learning

  • Sexual abuse/assault

  • Skill Standards

  • Substance abuse

  • Technology

  • Theory of practice

  • Wellness

• Accreditation: A major thrust of the Council for Standards in Human Service Education is to provide an accreditation process for human service programs.

  • Accreditation is the mechanism that ensures that programs meet minimum standards and share similar curricula and values as they train human service professionals.

• Credentialing: The Center for Credentialing and Education, in consultation with NOHS and CSHSE, developed a credentialing process for human service professionals to become Human Services—Board Certified Practitioners.

  • The HS-BCP credential allows those who hold an associate, bachelor, or master-level degree in human services or a related degree to become certified.

• Crisis, Disaster, and trauma Training: In recent years, there has been a push to have helpers trained appropriately to work with people who have experienced a crisis, disaster, or trauma as the readiness of the U.S. to react to a disaster has proven to not be particularly good.

• Ethical Standards: Ethical codes indicate that there is a unique body of knowledge to which ethical standards can be applied.

  • The HS-BCP and CCE created a separate ethical code that is shorter but more narrowly focused on limiting infractions committed by human service professionals.

• Evidence-Based Practice and Common Factors: In recent years, helpers have been challenged to ensure that what they are doing is based on scientific evidence.

  • For instance, recent research on evidence-based practice suggests the importance of matching treatment with the client's presenting problem.

• Skill Standards: During the 1990s, competencies for human service professionals and the skills needed to implement them were established through a national effort that included feedback from educators and practitioners.

  • The Skill Standards define the competencies used by direct service workers in a wide variety of service contexts in community settings across the nation.

• Multicultural Counseling and a Global Perspective: As human service professionals are called upon to work with an increasingly diverse population, they will need to have the attitudes and beliefs, knowledge, and skills to do so competently.

• Technology in Human Services Work: Today, increasing numbers of online human service programs are becoming available at all levels of training, and we now recognize that helping and supervision can be delivered in unconventional ways, such as via the Internet. However, the following questions are asked about these new unconventional ways:

  • How will the privacy of the individual, whether student or client, be protected?

  • Is the delivery of coursework or counseling via remote technologies as effective as in-person teaching and counseling?

  • Which kinds of ethical considerations do we need to consider with these new delivery systems?

  • Will our traditional teaching and counseling delivery models work well with these new delivery modes?

• Wellness: a wellness perspective is crucial to working effectively with clients. Unfortunately, because human service professionals often witness the saddest side of humanity, such as when they work with clients who are homeless, hungry or dealing with a recent loss, it is not uncommon for them to develop compassion fatigue/vicarious traumatization syndrome.

Ethical, Professional, And Legal Issues: Continuing Education

• Education never ends in the Human Service Profession; past obtaining your degree, being an effective Human Service Helper means ongoing learning.

• When Entering the field, noticeable gaps in your education will appear, information that seems critical for you to know; thus, continuing your education beyond your degree will be an important part of your job.

• Human service professionals seek the training, experience, education, and supervision necessary to ensure their effectiveness in working with culturally diverse individuals based on age, ethnicity, culture, race, ability, gender, language preference, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, nationality, or other historically oppressive groups. In addition, they will strive to increase their competence in methods that are known to be the best fit for the population(s) with whom they work.

The Effective Human Service Professional: Anxious About Change, Desirous Of Change, Hopeful

• Effective human service professionals want to take on new challenges, are committed to their profession, and look at change as crucial to their own process of living and critical to the evolution of the profession.

• Human service professionals who are stressed, burned out, cynical, and stagnant do little for themselves, probably provide poor services to their clients, and generally are not involved in positive ways with professional associations.

• Human service professionals who are positive, forward-looking, and desirous of change are probably the people who work best with their clients and offer the most to the future of the field.