PSYCHOLOGY EXAM

A personal experience made up from a mixture of physiological response, subjective feelings, and expressive behaviour

Fear, anger, sadness, happiness, disgust

The physiological response - interprets danger, amygdala sends message to hypothalamus, sympathetic nervous system activated.

The subjective feelings - thoughts, feelings, beliefs, memories, interpretations

The expressive behaviour - behaviour variations according to the group present. e.g. family, friends, ethnic group. (facial expressions, body posture, gestures, vocals)

The Limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses. The parts include the hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and thalamus (Hippo HAT)

The hippocampus is in the temporal lobe. It’s function is to use memories of past experiences, to form new memories about emotions. If damaged, it can cause depression

The hypothalamus is located on the underside of the brain (below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland). It adjust hormone levels associated with emotions and survival in the FFF process e.g. cortisol, adrenalin, dopamine, serotonin, endorphins. Also, controls autonomic functions such as heart, breathing rate. If damaged, there will be disruption in emotions, body temperature regulation, growth weight.

The amygdala is located in the medial temporal lobe. It attaches emotional significance to events and sends messages to the prefrontal cortex for interpretation. If damaged, the person will not experience any emotions

The thalamus is located in the forebrain. It acts as a sensory relay centre as it sends messages from the senses to the amygdala and cerebral cortex. If damaged, it can cause comas and movement disorders

It’s an innate physiological reaction to a threat. The result is to either freeze, flight, or fight. This is an adaptive (survival) response.

Senses register danger → amygdala sends a nerve message to the hypothalamus → SNS is activated → adrenalin and cortisol released → pupils dilate → digestive system slows → heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, muscle contraction increase → providing energy to FFF

Threat over → PNS activated → heart and breathing rate decrease → blood pressure and muscle contraction decrease → digestion activates → pupils contract.

Eustress: positive = motivation inducing, Distress: negative = acute: short term & can be overcome - chronic: long term & health consequences (high blood pressure, cancer, obesity, mental illness)

A learnt stress: activates when stressed about small scenarios (traffic, life pressures and relationships). Adrenalin = too high for too long (Recognising this is a step to calming interpretation)

Used to measure physiological changes with ob. quant. data (increased heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, sweat rate). If used as a lie detector, it can be incorrect as innocent people → guilty due to anxiety or guilty people → innocent, consciously calmed w/ practice.

Psychological part of an emotion = subjective feelings: occur as a result of the interpretation of the emotion (affected by thoughts, beliefs and values related to the emotion and intensity)

By sub. data (opinions). If pinions are gathered numerically (Likert scale) = sub. quant. or if worded opinions are provided (survey, interview) = sub. qual.

Fear, anger, joy, sadness, disgust, and surprise

Not universal (meaning varies between culture). E.G, thumbs up = good in Aus and number 5 in Japan. Nod = Yes in Aus and No in Bulgaria. Shake = No in Aus and Yes in Bulgaria. Eastern cultures value quiet/polite behaviour, Western cultures value talkative, loud behaviour

These vary according to the strength of the emotion (depending on culture or those present with the person whose emotion is being expressed)

The systematic study of thoughts, feelings & behaviour using scientific research methods

Any observable action made by a living person or animal (any kind of response that can be seen &/or measured)

Changes in the body (e.g. brain, nervous system, bones, muscles, motor skills, hormonal changes)

Changes in emotions, thinking, perception, memory, motivation, attention, interpretation

Changes in relationships with other people, interaction/social skills, ability to form and maintain relationships, behaviour in group settings.

Question, hypothesis, design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, reporting

Observation or experiments

The large group of research interest

A sample is a small group which is selected from the larger group of the population. This should be randomly chosen from the population. The size should be: at least 30 or √population size to be representative of the population

Sample composition bias such as gender, age, culture, race producing a poor balance of characteristics in the groups being compared so the sample is not representative of the population.

Sample being too small so sample is not representative of population as too many participant features are missing.

IV: Starting variable of interest. Can be manipulated directly by the experimenter or may occur naturally

DV: Variable that changes as a result of the change in the IV, respectively

Where the IV is not manipulated (experimental condition is not present) at all to see the effect of this (placebo effect) & the presence of the experimental condition, respectively

A test is valid if it’s measuring what it’s supposed to measure: no bias

Reliability of a test means that similar results are obtained each time the test is carried out. This can be reduced if there is a poor sample size and poor sample composition

Experimental design: where the exclusive characteristic is that the IV is manipulated purposely by the experimenter.

Observational design: where the main characteristic is that the IV is not manipulated. This variation in the IV is usually naturally occurring. The researcher can observe this effect on the DV

Qualitative design: focuses on answering a general question, where the response is usually in opinions, feelings and words. e.g. focus group, Delphi technique, interviews (clinical and diagnostic), questionnaires with worded answers.

Objective: measured by the researcher (fact)

Subjective: given by the subject as personal opinion

Quantitative: numerical (numbers)

Qualitative: words

The data are objects/features that can be measured directly by the investigator themselves giving numerical results & the measurements can be independently verified so not to be subject to bias. e.g. heart rates, scores on a memory test, reaction time

Data can be obtained from scores from the subject filling in a Likert scale or a checklist so that the scores are numbers. The data is subjective because it is the subject’s opinion and cannot be verified by others.

Data obtained from subjects in focus groups, content analysis of advertisements or interviews or from the Delphi technique. This data is expressed in words.

+ Data is factual so can be verified by others therefore validity is high

- Lacking in depth and detail

+ Rich and detailed, often with the extra depth of personal experiences

- The opinion cannot be verified as it may be biassed or untrue, decreasing validity.

+ Easy to organise and interpret, can be put into graphs and tables for clarity.

- May lack in depth and detail, may not provide rich personal experience

+ Large amounts of rich and varied information from the subjects’ experiences

- Takes a lot of time and effort to collate and analyse data

A design where the IV is manipulated by the researcher

The process of ensuring that the chance of participant in control group = chance of participant in experimental group. (helps ensure that participant variables are evenly distributed between the experimental and control groups, preventing bias.)

Variables that can interfere with results if not controlled: participant (personal features), situational ( environmental conditions), experimenter effects (preferred treatment for one group)

The placebo effect is a special participant variable that occurs when a subject’s response is influenced by their expectations rather than the actual procedure being used to produce that response.

Where the subject is not aware of whether they are in the control group or experimental group. Single blind trials help to manage the placebo effect.

Double blind trials occur where neither the subject nor the data collector knows if the subject is in the control or experimental group. Double blind trials help to manage researcher bias.

High causality (only the IV variation causes the change in DV), Ability to replicate, High internal validity (truly testing the required variable)

Because of the control over the manipulated IV, the presence of random allocation of the participants in the sample into control and experimental groups and good control of extraneous variables.

The research effectively tested for reliability because of the control over the manipulated IV, the presence of random allocation of sample participants into control and experimental groups and good control of extraneous variables.

Lower external validity as artificial lab conditions (external validity occurs if the results gained within the research are similar to what would occur in real life conditions

Unethical for certain topics

Impractical to do for certain topics.

Design where the IV is not manipulated (naturally occurring). The researcher can observe this effect on the DV

Random allocation of participants cannot occur as the IV is not manipulated. Therefore there is lower control over participant variables

High external validity as IV not manipulated, avoids unethical research, avoids impractical research

Lower causation as IV not manipulated, no random allocation and less control over extraneous variables such as participant, situational and researcher variables

Lower ability to replicate effectively to test for reliability

Lower internal validity as less control over variables

Focus group, Delphi technique, interviews

Group of 5-7 people discuss 2-3 specific questions about the topic → leader guides discussion → ensures that everyone speaks → no person dominating discussion → 2 scribes record discussion for later analysis → scribe records data when other scribe speaks

+ Richness/complex data, inexpensive, easy to organise, good for topics involving attitude/experiences, good for people w/ reading/writing difficulties, group support for sensitive topics

- Subjective data is hard to interpret, dominant members may overrule others, discomfort in revealing experiences in the presence of others

Obtains information on a certain topic from experts in that area → used to construct questionnaires for participants (maybe experts) about this topic → further questionnaires are answered by participants after they’ve been made aware of other expert opinions → gives them the chance to change their responses → The aim is consensus of opinion to give researcher a clear outcome.

+ Inexpensive contact with experts over large distances, can lead to good consensus, much exposure to different points of view, less domination than in group discussion

- forced consensus, lack of discussion may weaken agreed upon opinions

Structured clinical interviews: list of standardised questions

Clinical diagnostic interviews: discussion in the form of the client telling the psychologist the story surrounding their situation

+ Richness and depth of data leading to improved validity.

- Bias due to social desirability (responding to social norms rather than providing personal opinions), false information so can be lower validity, difficulty in interpreting data.

Mean (best for large amounts of data clustered around the centre. The mean is distorted by outliers)

Median (centre after organising in order - best when there are outlier clusters as it’s not affected by them as median is determined by the position of each number, not its size)

Range (the highest score minus the lowest so only deals with 2 of the scores)

Standard deviation (the average distance of the scores from the mean & a better way of measuring variability than range as it deals with all scores)

Line, bar, histograms, skewed & normal distributions

The responsibilities of the researcher, rights of participants & use of animals in research.

They monitor and explain appropriate assessment procedures, collecting info from people, professional relationships with clients, teaching of psychology, supervision & training, research, ethical reporting & publication of research results,  public statements & advertising, relationships with other professionals.

• voluntary participation

• informed consent before the research testing is carried out

• confidentiality to protect form societal judgement

• no physical or psychological harm

• ethical reporting

• right to withdraw with no negative consequences

• debriefing (especially if deception occurs)

This means minimal pain, illness and discomfort for the animals, painless surgery & death.

These factors must be accounted for:

• If stress or deprivation is to occur, research may only occur if no other alternative is available & the research can be justified.

• The degree of stress or deprivation must be the least possible for the wellbeing of the animal

• Anaesthesia must be given for surgery

• Life termination must be done quickly & painlessly.

Interferes with how a person thinks, feels, and behaves, but to a lesser extent than a mental illness/disorder.

This significantly and negatively affects how a person feels, thinks, behaves, and interacts with other people. EG depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, eating disorders and schizophrenia.

The American DSM-5, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, classifies mental disorders but does not provide treatments

The ICD: the European International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, it reports and classifies all physical and mental health disorders.

An extensive history of the person is taken:

• past mental disorders & physical illnesses

• family history of a mental disorder (bio)

• relevant issues in childhood & earlier life

• Present biological and psychological functioning are examined such as current work and social relationships issues as well as personality and thinking style

With the self report, rating scale DASS 21: Depression and Anxiety Stress Scale 21. It gathers subjective quantitative data.

Someone with mental illness is labelled as undesirable and they are rejected. It is a negative judgement of that person.

Self stigma makes people full of shame and can prevent proper treatment.

Historical approach to mental illness was to try to assist in overcoming symptoms with medication while Modern Approach to mental illness is to focus on skills (psychological capital) to prevent illness and foster wellbeing

Poor upbringing, trauma, poor self regulation, physical or prior mental illness or disability, poor social skills, high stress environment, low self esteem.

Safe and secure upbringing, good social skills,  self worth and self regulation.

The skills the person has to prevent mental illness and develop wellbeing. It involves the concepts of GRIT, Growth mindset, Flow state and Resilience

The skill of passion and perseverance for long term goals even when there are setbacks. GRIT has the meanings below.

• G: give it your all

• R: redo if necessary

• I:  ignore giving up

• T: take the time needed to do it properly

People give up due to dwelling on past mistakes, forgetting to believe in themselves, expecting fast results and thinking the world owes them something. To develop GRIT

• Listen to positive role models

• Practise skills of self regulation

• Grow will power little by little

• Recognise setbacks as a chance to increase skills

• Embracing challenges

• Believing talent can improve due to nurture

• See failure as a chance to learn

• See effort and practice as important

• See feedback as a source of information

Flow is being completely immersed in an activity . The person has strong concentration and deep attention (experiences distorted sense of time, being so focused on the present)

Benefits:

• higher output of higher quality work

• stress, worry, and self-doubt become unimportant

• positive experience occurs from the pleasure of carrying out a personal passion

• lasting sense of happiness and fulfilment is felt and improves wellbeing

The ability to cope with life’s challenges. Resilient people are knocked down by challenges but return as a stronger person, more steadfast than before.

• Hope: an emotion that promotes positive feelings about the future.

• Optimism: a thinking style where a person reacts to problems with a sense of confidence and high personal ability.

• Self-efficacy:a person’s belief in their ability to have successful behaviours.

Decreases stress by improving the immune system, preventing chronic disease, lowering blood pressure and cortisol levels and increasing longevity.

More committed to their goals, use more effective methods to deal with setbacks and have better mental health.

Better social networks and receive greater support after bad physical or mental health events.

The generalised, relatively stable tendency to expect good outcomes across important life domains. This depends on a person’s positive expectations for the future.

A self-report that can measure dispositional optimism by a rating scale questionnaire that collects subjective quantitative data.

Believing in yourself, being optimistic, nurturing yourself, developing healthy relationships, finding purpose, establishing goals, embracing change, developing problem solving skills.

• Get healthy with exercise

• Eat well with fruit and vegetables, lean meats, nuts and grains, low salt and sugar

• Sleep well with good sleep hygiene

• Meditation: focusing on one calming thought repetitively

• Mindfulness: becoming aware of the details of the present moment e.g. mindful walking, eating, showering, progressive muscle relaxation, 4-7-8 breathing.

• The 3 good things exercise: At the end of each day think of three good things that happened and why they happened. Write them down. This refocuses on the positive.

• Planning pleasant activities: enjoyment comes from activities such as reading, cooking, mixing with friends, laughing, creating an artwork etc

• Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) : Emotional or behavioural problems can result from unrealistic or irrational thinking about oneself or others. Therapists use CBT to assist the client.

• Celebrating achievements: increases self esteem

• Identify the negative thoughts, with the help of the therapist

• Challenge these negative thoughts to realise that there is no usefulness to them

• Change the thoughts to more constructive thinking as the client realises it is more beneficial for them

• Change the behaviour because, with the constructive thinking, new strategies can be practised. e.g., the three good things exercise

• Build positive relationships with others

• Connect to community by practising positive social norms

• Access support such as counselling resources and education