Pysch 8-10

measure of memory where person must retrieve info learned earlier with no retrieval cue (ex. president list, fill in the blank quiz)

measure of memory where person only needs to identify items previously learned with retrieval cues (ex. snow white dwarfs with list)

measure of memory that assesses amount of time saved when learning material again (ex. studying for final exam)

processing info into memory system, get info (ex. extracting meaning)

process of retaining encoded info overtime

process of getting info out of memory storage

made by Atkinson and Shiffrin, believes brain is like a computer, process of encoding, storage, and retrieval

processing many aspects of problem simultaneously

info processing model by Alan Baddely, views memory as products of interconnected neural networks, specific memories arise from particular activation pattern in network, focus on parallel processing, memories based on how important info is

immediate very brief recording of sensory info in memory system (MSM)

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (MSM) (ex. phone number)

relatively permanent and limitless store-house of memory system, includes knowledge, skills, experiences (MSM and LOP)

newer understanding of short term memory focus on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory/visual spacial info and info retrieved from long term memory (LOP)

responsible for focused processing/attention (LOP)

encoding requires attention and conscious effort, explicit memories

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, follows bottom track through short term memory to long term, in hippocampus (MSM) (ex. “what’s your favorite color”)

unconscious encoding of incidental info directly into storage, top track (MSM) (ex. space, time, frequency, word meanings)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, can be automatic or bottom track, in cerebellum (MSM) (ex. how to drive a car)

automatic skills, implicit memory (ex. how to drive a car)

classical conditioning, implicit memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, photographic memory lasting no more than few-tenths of a sec, George Spirling, sensory memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3/4 secs, sensory memory (ex. ask “what” then respond to question)

store about 7 +/-2 bits of info in short term memory

organize items into familiar, manageable units often automatically (ex. memorizing 43 letters as 7 words)

memory aids using imagery and organizational devices (ex. acronyms, PEMDAS)

mnemonic using jingle (ex. one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, etc)

process info in ordering a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts, used to gain expertise (ex. chapters in textbook divided into subchapters)

tendency for distributed study or practice to build better long term retention than achieved through mass study or practice (ex. studying over long time)

cramming, produce speedy short term learning and confidence, forget faster

spread review time to remember better

spacing effect, retention curve for relearning and memory retention

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than rereading info, testing improves learning, Roediger and Jefferly Karpiche

encoding on basic level based on structure or appearance of words (LOP)

recognize structure of word (ex. recognizing name) (LOP)

recognizing the sound of a word (ex. knowing someone's name rhymes with something) (LOP)

recognize a word and know the meaning (ex. knowing name of person) (LOP)

encoding semantically based on meaning of words, yields best retention (LOP)

minds fill in the image like screen director filling in script (ex. threw rock through window vs threw rock at window)

working memory processing

“save button” for explicit memory (ex. names, images, events)

neural storage of long term memory, hippocampus acts as “loading dock”, registers and temporarily holds element of remembered episode (smell, feel, sound, location), memory shifts to storage

forming and storing implicit memories from classical conditioning

formation of procedural skill memories

conscious memory of first three years is blank, index explicit using words children haven’t learned, hippocampus is the last structure to mature

stress hormones focus memory, strong emotional events cause strong vivid memory (ex. shooting, rape, etc)

clear memory of emotionally significant moment/event

increase in cell firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, neural basis for learning and memory, rapid stimulating certain memory circuit connections increased sensitivity for hours/weeks, less prompting to release neurotransmitter

encode info memory target piece of info, associate with other bits of info, retrieving memory like storage by web of associations, interconnected, more retrieval cues, better chance of finding memory (ex. name of person, sights, smells)

unconscious activation of particular associations in memory (ex. “rabbit” predisposes you to thing “hare”)

cues and contexts specific to particular memory must be effective in helping recall it, memory depends on context (ex. remember an event in a specific location)

what is learned in one state (drunk or sober) is recalled when back in that state

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good/bad mood, emotions associate with good/bad events become retrieval cues

tendency to recall best the first + last items in a list (ex. remember first and last couple presidents)

recall last items, still in working memory

recall first items, rehearse first items more than last

inability to form new memories, can remember past

inability to retrieve info from past

don’t notice and fail to encode don’t make it to long term memory and forget, slower encoding when older, forget easier

forget even if encoded well, forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time (ex. people taking high school spanish forget a lot after, but what they remember they remember after

forget from not being able to retrieve from long term (ex. “on the tip of my tongue")

forward acting disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info, (ex. using an old combination on a new lock with a different combo)

backward acting disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old info (ex. sing new lyrics to old song, forget old lyrics)

psychoanalytic theory basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, memories, can be brought back through retrieval cue/therapy, today psychologists believe repression doesn’t happen often (Sigmund Freud)

process in which previously stored memories when retrieved are potentially altered before stored again

misleading info corrupts memory of event, feel confident and misremember

attributing to the wrong source an event that was experienced, heard about, read, imagined (ex. Piaget thought nursemaid thwarted kidnapping from story)

sense of “I’ve experienced this before”, cues from current situation unconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier experience

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, communicating

mental grouping similar objects, events, ideas, people, simplifying thinking (ex. concept “chair” means high chair, recliner chair, dentist chair, etc)

mental image or best example of category, match new items to prototype provide quick easy method for sorting items into categories (ex. a robin is more like a bird than a penguin because it fits better into bird prototype)

methodical, logical rule/procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem, always arrives at answer, slower (ex. guess and check)

simple thinking strategy that allows the making of judgement and solve problems efficiently, faster but more accident prone (ex. solve word scramble by grouping common letters together)

sudden realization of problems solution, no method, “aha moment”

tendency to search for info that supports preconceptions and ignore/distort contradictory evidence, rather be right than correct (ex. believing vaccines cause autism)

tendency to approach problem in one particular way often one successful in the past, predisposing how we think (ex. pushing pull door because you are used to pushing doors open)

mental set preventing one from taking a fresh perspective (ex. writers block)

effortless, immediate feeling or thought, contrasted with explicit conscious reasoning

estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, if instance comes to mind vividly, more likely to presume common (ex. saw on social media, believed it was real) (Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman)

tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimate accuracy of beliefs and judgements

clinging to ones initial conceptions after basis on which they were formed has been discredited

the way as issue is posed, can significantly affect decisions and judgments (ex. 10% people die vs 90% people survive)

ability to produce new and valuable ideas (ex. solution to Fermats last theorem)

ability to learn

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution, intelligence tests tests this ability

expanding the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in different directions, creativity tests tests this

provide ability to see things in novel ways, recognize patterns, make connections, after mastering problems basic elements, explore in new ways (ex. Copernicus mastered solar system and planets, then discovered planets went around the sun)

believed humans aren’t the only creatures to display insight, a chimp stopped, surveyed scene, then figured out a way to solve its issue

spoken, written, signed words and ways we combine them to communicate meaning, info moving from one brain to another, comprehend what never saw or what distant ancestors never knew

in language, smallest distinctive sound unit (ex. that=th + a + t)

in language, smallest unit carrying meaning, may be part of a word (ex. bat, pre-, -ed)

system of rules that enables communication with understanding others

set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

ability to understand what is said, infants develop language comprehension faster than language production, recognize sounds and words, can lip read

ability to produce words, recognize noun-verb differences

beginning at about 4 months, stage of speech development where infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to household language, consonant-vowel pair, 10 months they start to imitate, lose ability to hear/produce sound outside native language if don’t hear (ex. da-da, ma-ma)

age 1-2, stage in speech development child mostly speaks in single words (ex. “doggy” means look at dog

about age 2, stage in speech development child speaks in mostly two-word sentences (ex “want juice”)

early speech stage in which child speaks like telegram, mostly nouns and verbs, follow syntax, adjectives before words (ex. “go car”)

all languages share basic elements, all have nouns, verbs, adjectives, humans predisposed to learn grammar rules (Noam Chomsky)