PSY202 Development

Germinal → Embryonic → Fetal

• 0-2 weeks; time from conception to implantation

• Is referred to as ZYGOTE (a fertilized human egg which consists of 23 pairs of moms and dads chromosomes)

• 3-8 weeks; most important and critical stage, when the heartbeat begins, the brain is developing, and the body is recognizable (essentially all major organs develop)

• 4th week is when the neural chord appears

• referred to as EMBRYO (most vulnerable to hazards)

• week 9-birth of baby; the last three months are when rapid growth of the body and brain occurs which includes the expansion of volume, complexity and physical maturation

• referred to as a FETUS (baby my be subject to mothers choices)

• Health (stress/diseases; higher stress leads to decrease of oxygen which causes health defects)

• Diet/Nutrition (folic acid; overconsumption of certain nutrients can lead to defects)

• Age (infant mortality; mothers under 20 tend to lose their babies)

• Environmental hazards that can damage the developing embryo/fetus such as drugs (legal or illegal)

• Harmful towards the structure of a embryo/fetus at particular points in development (critical periods of susceptibility)

• Can cause birth defects, intellectual disabilities, neurodevelopmental disorders, low birth weight and preterm delivery

• There is no safe time or amount to consume alcohol during pregnancy

• The weight of a baby quadruples within the first 2 years on average

• Brain Growth and Motor Development

• Reaches 75% of adult size by 2 years old

• Most growth is in size/complexity of neurons, but neurogenesis may continue through middle age in certain brain regions

• Experience affects brain development

The development of neurons in the brain.

• Most crawl, stand, and walk at roughly the same ages

• Each lifestyle varies depending on the child, but on average most toddlers have many similarities

Loss of mental functioning due to the physical changes of the brain (such as emotions, memory, and thinking/reasoning)

• A common cause of Dementia

• Progressive (gets worse as a person ages) and incurable

• The Hippocampus and Cerebral Cortex is damaged; ventricles fill with fluid and become larger

• Cognitive Development Theory and the stages; a constructivist theory where children construct knowledge by themselves

• Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibrium/Disequilibrium

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 y/o)

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 y/o)

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 y/o)

4. Formal Operational Stage (11+ y/o)

   S-P-C-F

The way things are represented in an infants long-term memory.

• Infants get to know the world through their senses and actions

• Their ability to hold their mental representation is increased

• Object Permanence (8 months)

• A-not-B Error (8-12 months)

• Deferred Imitation (18-24 months)

The knowledge that things, people, or objects continue to exist even when not visible in the moment.

When children reach for objects where last seen, instead of where hidden.

• Stored memory that is used later

• Evidence of persistent mental representations of the repetition of others behaviours after a timed delay

• Watching → Storing Long-Term Memory → Imitation after x time

• The ability to represent the world through language and mental representations

• Toward the end of the stage, children can see the world through other people's perspectives

• Symbolic Representation

• Egocentrism

• Centration

• Lack of Conservation

• The ability to use one thing to represent or stand for another thing

• Scale Models; model room is used for children to search for objects in a real life sized room

• The tendency for children to perceive the world from their own POV, and be unable to understand other POV’s

• Three Mountains Task; there are three mountains on a sand table, each child is only able to perceive the mountains from their own POV

• Egocentric Talk; when children conversate and each child is on their own topic

• The tendency for children to focus on a single dimension of an object/event at a time, while neglecting others

• Balance Scale Task; used to test the children’s ability to reason logically and understand the relationship between weight and distance

• Changing the appearance of objects and observing if children understand that the key properties of these objects do not change; they most times do not

• Liquid, Solid, Numbers

• When children begin to understand conservation

• They start thinking logically and begin reasoning about concrete objects

• They have some difficulty with abstract concepts/hypotheticals and difficulty reasoning systematically

  • Pendulum Problem; using a systematic approach to assess a childs ability to separate factors that affect an experimental set up

• When a child begins to think abstractly and think hypothetically

• Capable of systematic and scientific reasoning

• Thinking also is adult-like

• It is Highly Influential

  • Children are not small adults

  • Learning is an active rather than a passive process since children learn by themselves and create their own thoughts

  • Exploring general

• Development is more continuous

• Underestimated children’s competence (each person has individual differences)

• Culturally based

• Sociocultural Perspective; claims that Children are social beings

• Children are surrounded by people who are eager to help them learn, while also being eager to learn themselves

• Development Process

• Intersubjectivity

• Social Scaffolding and ZPD

• Development is continuous

• Many processes are the same in all societies, however content varies depending on culture and shapes the thinking of children accordingly

• Mutual understanding people have when they are communicating

• Joint Attention; being directed to another object by a second party and focusing on that object

• Social Referencing; children’s use of emotional cues to interpret situations/new things

• Competent individuals provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level

• Zone of Proximal Development is the difference between what children can do unsupported VS with optimal support

• Behavioural tendencies that are biologically determined

• Genetic components

• Distinguish children from other children based off characteristics

• How researchers observe children’s tendencies

  • Fearfulness/Approach Withdrawal

  • Irritability

  • Mood

  • Activity Level

  • Attention Span

  • Regularity/Rhythmicity

Researchers classify babies into these categories (Easy, Difficult, Slow to Warm Up).

When the baby has a positive mood, are adaptable, have regular habits, are predictable, and quickly establish routines. 40% of all babies.

When a baby is active, irritable and irregular, reacts to novelty, can not adjust well to new circumstances, and might withdraw from them. 10% of all babies.

When a baby is moody, inactive, slow but still adapts to novelty, and quiet. 15% of all babies.

How well the temperament of a child matches the temperament of their parent/environment.

Strong emotional bonds with one or more intimate companions. These bonds are likely to become consistent throughout a child’s life.

• Attachment Theory

• Phases of Attachment formation and Characteristics of Attachment

Claims that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means to increase survival.

• Proximity Maintenance

• Safe Haven

• Secure Base

• Separation Distress/Anxiety

The desire for a child to be near their attachment figure.

When a child is scared, they desire to return to their attachment figure for comfort and safety.

When their attachment figure is present in a new environment, a child is at ease to explore.

The feeling of anxiety when their attachment figure is not present.

1. Asocial/Pre-Attachment (0-6w)

2. Indiscriminate Attachment (6w-7m)

3. Specific Attachment (7-9m)

4. Multiple Attachment (by 18m)

When babies produce innate signals to gain attention.

When babies are responsive toward attachment figures, but not strangers.

When babies seek contact with their regular attachment figure and is anxious when they are not present.

When babies take on the role of developing attachments with other figures.

• The Strange Situation Procedure

• Stimulates caregiver-infant interactions

• Secure (~60%)

• Insecure - Avoidant (~15%-20%)

• Insecure - Resistant/Anxious (~15%-20%))

• Disorganized (~5%-10%)

Infant has an average attachment to their attachment figure, upset when mother is not present. Is weary when stranger walks in.

Independent, not worried about attachment figure leaving/returning, or when stranger enters.

In need of attachment figure, however, may resist or seek comfort when attachment figure returns from leaving. Weary of stranger.

Infant is confused in situations; avoids attachment figure when present, but resists when returns from leaving. Mix of Insecure styles.

• “Continuity“ from preschool-adulthood

• Securely attached infants: Positive developmental / Insecurely attached infants: Negative developmental

• Internal Working Model which is how a young child builds up a sense of emotional well-being through relationships

• A child’s ability to give up/pass up short-term gains, for long-term rewards (Marshmallow Experiment)

• Early ability to delay gratification predicts success in future

Principles/ideals that help individuals:

• Distinguish right from wrong (cognitive)

• Act on this distinction (behavioural)

• Feel pride in good conduct and guilt due to bad conduct (emotional)

Moral Development Theory and the Levels of Moral Development.

• Hypothetical Moral Dilemmas are faced by children

• The moral reasoning behind answers and explanations as to why children do/do not do things

1. Preconventional (S1,2)

2. Conventional (S3,4)

3. Postconventional (S5,6)

When children morally judge based off punishments and rewards.

When children morally judge based off social approval, order, rules, and law.

When children morally judge based off ethical principles and social contract/individual rights.