AP Biology ALL UNITS

A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule (or in another region of the same molecule).

Between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the pair of electrons on an oxygen atom of a neighboring water molecule.

In between the nitrogenous bases

The Adenine - Thymine base pair is held together by 2 hydrogen bonds while the Guanine - Cytosine base pair is held together by 3 hydrogen bonds

a central carbon atom attached to a hydrogen, an acidic carboxyl group (−COOH), an amino group (−NH2) and an organic side chain (also called an R group)

a hydrophobic group, a charged and polar group, and an uncharged polar group.

-Hydrophobic/polar = repels water -Hydrophilic/nonpolar = accepts water

cohesion/adhesion, specific heat, and surface tension.

 -Water's high heat capacity is a property caused by hydrogen bonding among water molecules.

-When heat is absorbed, hydrogen bonds are broken and water molecules can move freely.

-When the temperature of water decreases, the hydrogen bonds are formed and release a considerable amount of energy.
-Cohesion and adhesion in water are caused by the intermolecular attraction between the partial negative oxygen of one water molecule, and the partial positive hydrogen of another molecule.

-Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules which are strong and flexible.

-This creates a high surface tension.

-This molecule at the surface tends to be pulled into the bulk of the liquid and minimizes the surface area of a liquid.

 -Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the electrons of the molecule group closer to the oxygen than to the hydrogen atoms.

-Therefore, water is said to be a polar molecule, an uneven distribution of electron density.

 -Capillary action can pull water up.

-To get water up to all its desired location, the forces of adhesion and cohesion go to work.

-Water striders use high surface tension of water and long and hydrophobic legs to help them stay above water.

-Water striders use this surface tension to their advantage through their adapted legs and weight being distributed

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in 1:2:1 ratio

they provide energy, cell structure, energy storage

 amino acids, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

-Most proteins also include sulfur.

Carboxyl and amino groups.

helps repair and build your body's tissues. It drives metabolic reactions, maintains pH and fluid balance, and keeps the immune system strong. It also transports and stores nutrients and can act as an energy source.

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen; plus phosphorus

a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen-rich structure called a nitrogenous base.

storage and expression of genetic information.

-Deoxyribonucleic acid encodes the information the cell needs to make proteins

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms(little oxygen)

Triglycerides: Function as a long-term energy source in animals (fats) and plants (oils)

Phospholipids: Structural component of cell membranes.

Steroids: Act as hormones in plants and animals, and is a structural component of animal cell membranes (cholesterol)

structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as important signaling molecules

nucleic acids and proteins

nucleic acids

proteins

Polar R groups form hydrogen bonds and stabilize secondary structures, while nonpolar R groups drive the folding process through hydrophobic interactions. The hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids will cluster together in the interior of the protein, whereas the hydrophilic R groups lay on the outside.

occurs when two molecules or compounds are joined to form a larger molecule following the removal of water.

when water is added to a chemical reaction and splits a molecule

glycosidic bond

peptide bonds

 phosphodiester bond

monosaccharide

Amino acids

What is the monomer of a nucleic acid?

a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group that is modified by an alcohol.

Starch is primarily used for energy storage, whereas cellulose is used for structure and support.

 glycosidic bonds

glycosidic bonds, different than the α glycosidic bonds found in glycogen and starch. Cellulose has more hydrogen bonds between adjacent glucose units, both within a chain and between adjacent chains, making it a tougher fiber than glycogen or starch.

alpha-glycosidic bonds, which can be broken down by the enzymes in the digestive tracts of animals

Saturated=are solid@ room temp and only form single bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds and are liquid at room temp.

significantly alters the protein's structure during folding, thus changing the protein's function. The polar R group will gravitate towards the exterior of the protein, causing a structural shift.

 they have a different number of bonds required to bind to their complementary base so the connection between the guanine and the thymine would be unstable.

results in a structural disruption due to the pairing of two purines, which is biochemically unstable.

 it changes both the structure and function of a nucleic acid. Ribose contains an additional hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to its second carbon atom that deoxyribose lacks. This additional oxygen atom influences the three-dimensional shape of the nucleic acid molecule

long chainlike molecules composed of a series of nearly identical building blocks called nucleotides.

adenine always pairs with thymine (A-T), and guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C)

the amino terminus (N-terminus) and the carboxyl terminus (C-terminus).

multiple monosaccharides joined by oxygen

glycerol and fatty acids.

two fatty acids, a glycerol unit and a phosphate group

four fused rings

a five-carbon sugar backbone, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

Ribosomes contruct proteins. They are made up of rRNA and various proteins. They read an mRNA sequence, translate it and use tools to build it into a protein. This protein is then used by the cell.

messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). rRNA forms ribosomes, which are essential in protein synthesis. A ribosome contains a large and small ribosomal subunit.

not enclosed by a membrane and are subcellular components found in ALL forms of life, reflecting the common ancestry of all known life.

production, folding, quality control and despatch of some proteins.

It participates in the production of phospholipids, the chief lipids in cell membranes and are essential in the process of metabolism

Rough ER is a host for ribosomes that continually attach to and detach from the ER surface. The endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes work together in order to synthesize proteins and have them transported to their final destination.

helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell

generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.

membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of enzymes capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers

 Like a large sac in the cell that can hold either waste or water

 to ingest food particles using phagocytosis, a type of endocytosis.

It is surrounded by a membrane and functions to hold materials and wastes. It also functions to maintain the proper pressure within the plant cells to provide structure and support for the growing plant.

to pump water out of the cell through a process called osmoregulation, the regulation of osmotic pressure.

a double-membrane plant endosymbiotic organelle where photosynthesis takes place

Lysosomes contain a large number of hydrolytic enzymes that, when released from the lysosomes, can come into contact with cytosolic targets and contribute to apoptotic cell death.

When a plant receives adequate amounts of water, the central vacuoles of its cells swell as the liquid collects within them, creating a high level of turgor pressure, which helps maintain the structural integrity of the plant, along with the support from the cell wall.

forms numerous folds (cristae), which extend into the interior (or matrix) of the organelle. Each of these components plays distinct functional roles, with the matrix and inner membrane representing the major working compartments of mitochondria.

 an outer membrane, intermembrane space, and an inner membrane

molecules of chlorophyll, a pigment through which the entire process of photosynthesis begins.

light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoids, and light-independent reactions (also known as dark reactions or the Calvin cycle), which take place in the stroma.

the pigment chlorophyll, located within the thylakoid membranes, captures energy from the sun (photons) to initiate the breakdown of water molecules

By passing through a series of proteins found in the thylakoid membranes, electrons provide energy to form the energy storage molecule ATP, with water as a by-product. The chlorophyll molecules then regain electrons from the splitting of water into oxygen and hydrogen.

 in the mitochondrial matrix

 the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

 the thylakoid membrane

all through the cycle but the most in chemiosmosis

 chloroplast stroma

 If the surface area to volume ratio is small, the cell is very big. If the ratio is big, the surface area is greater than the volume, and the cell is small.

A larger surface area to volume ratio

digestion and gas exchange

phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates and cholesterol or sterols.

 The selective permeability of biological membranes to small molecules allows the cell to control and maintain its internal composition.

peripheral and integral proteins. Peripheral membrane proteins are temporally associated with the lipid bilayer but do not fully span the membrane.

 ionic and molecular transport, electron transport, signal transduction, enzymatic reactions and intercellular communication.

polar amino acids are on the extracellular side and intracellular side, while nonpolar proteins are running through hydrophobic core of the membrane

 Controls what enters/leaves cell. it allows certain ions and water to pass through the membrane into and out of the cell

The cell membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules floating within a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.

 Cholesterol helps to control membrane fluidity and allows the cell membrane to adapt to different environmental conditions; at moderate temps cholesterol will reduce membrane fluidity and at low temps it stops the phospholipids from packing too closely together

Small hydrophobic molecules and gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide cross membranes rapidly

 bulk transport or larger molecules; examples: neurotransmitters and starches

Fungi, plants, prokaryotes

plasmodesmata in plants

cellulose

chitin

peptidoglycan

Type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances down their concentration gradient across cell membranes.