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What are the characteristics of C1?
No body
Concave and superior facing superior articular facets
No spinous process
Largest vertebral canal of cervical region
Wide TPs
Anterior and posterior tubercles
What are the characteristics of C2?
Body with dens
Bifid spinous process
What are the characteristics of typical cervical vertebrae?
Rectangular body with uncinate process and anterior inferior lipping
APs 45 degrees from horizontal
Bifid SP
Triangular vertebral canal
Transverse tubercles on TPs forming transverse foramen
What are the characteristics of C7?
Body more heart shaped - transitional vertebra
Large SP - vertebral prominence in 70% of people
Thick and prominent TPs
What are the characteristics of each atypical thoracic vertebra?
T1 - full costal facet for rib 1 and demifacet for rib 2
T9 - one demifacet
T10 - one full facet
T11 - one full facet, no costotransverse facet
T12 - one full facet, no costotransverse facet
What are the characteristics of typical thoracic vertebrae?
Cuboidal body with demifacets for rib attachment
APs 60 degrees off horizontal and 20 degrees laterally
Long and slanted SPs
Small round vertebral canal
Facet on TPs for rib attachment
What are the characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae?
Kidney shaped body
Superior APs with mammillary processes
Short and stout SPs
Triangular vertebral canal containing cauda equina
Slender TPs
What is a zygote?
The result of fertilization - 2 haploid cells forming a diploid cell
Either XX or XY
Undergoes mitotic divisions
All cells are identical
What is a morula?
16 cell solid mass containing all identical cells
Occurs about day 3-4
Blastomeres covered by zona pellucida
What is a blastocyst?
A cluster of dividing cells
Early stage of an embryo
Forms about day 5-6
Hollow and cells beginning to differentiate
What is a trophoblast? What happens to the trophoblast?
Outer cell mass of a blastula
Will be implanted into the uterine lining
Later forms the placenta
How does the trophoblast implant?
Extension of cells into endometrial lining Syncitiotrophoblasts invade mother’s tissue
Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) allows blastocyst to invade mother’s cells
What is the embryoblast? What will it become?
Inner cell mass of blastocyst
Will become the baby
When does an embryo become a fetus?
After the first 8 weeks of development
What events occur during the second week of development?
Completion of implantation
Formation of bilaminar disc
Trophoblast development
What do syncitiotrophoblasts secrete when they erode?
TNF - allows for mother’s cells to be invaded
EPF - early pregnancy factor
hCG - maintains corpus luteum
What events occur during the third week of development?
Gastrulation
Formation of primitive streak
Formation of notochord
Formation of neural crest
Formation neural tube
How does the notochord develop?
Cells of primitive streak migrate rostrally
What germ layer forms the notochord? What germ layer is it found in?
Made from endoderm
Found in mesoderm
What is the role of the notochord?
Provide structural rigidity for embryo
Forms basis for development of spinal column
Sends signalling chemicals to ectoderm to form neural tube
How is the neural tube formed?
Invagination of the neural plate
What germ layer forms the neural tube?
Ectoderm
What does the neural tube develop into?
CNS - brain and spinal cord
Retina
Pineal body
Posterior pituitary gland
What does the neural crest give rise to?
Sensory ganglia of cranial and spinal nerves
Autonomic ganglia
Sheaths of peripheral nerves
Meningeal coverings of brain and spinal cord
What are the 3 divisions of the epiblast?
Intermediate mesoderm
Paraxial mesoderm
Lateral plate mesoderm
What is derived from the intermediate mesoderm?
Nephrotimes which give rise to kidneys
What is derived from the paraxial mesoderm?
Somites
What are the 3 divisions derived from somites?
Dermatomes
Myotomes
Sclerotomes
What do sclerotomes become?
Bones
Cartilage
Ligaments of vertebral column
Parts of the base of the skull
What are the 2 divisions of myotomes?
Hypomere
Epimere
What does the hypomere become?
Muscles of the limbs
What does the epimere become?
Deep muscles of the back
What do dermatomes become?
Dermis
What are the 2 divisions of the lateral plate mesoderm?
Splanchnic
Somatic
What does the splanchnic division become?
Visceral organs and cardiac muscles
What does the somatic division become?
Blood
Lymphatic vessels
Spleen
Serous membranes of pleura
Pericardium
Peritoneum
What does the enoderm become?
Liver
Pancreas
Urinary bladder
Epithelium of GI tract
Epithelia of trachea, bronchi, lungs
What does the ectoderm form?
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Skin
Nails
Hair
What is gastrulation?
Process of epiblast differentiating into 3 distinct germ layers
What are the 3 germ layers?
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
What germ layer forms the primitive gut? How is the primitive gut formed?
Endoderm
Layers of the trilaminar disc fold laterally to form primitive gut from the yolk sac
What are the 3 divisions of the primitive gut?
Foregut
Midgut
Hindgut
What portion of the digestive tract is derived from the foregut?
Oral cavity to initial part of duodenum
What portion of the digestive tract is derived from the midgut?
Mid-duodenum to the initial 2/3 of the transverse colon
What portion of the digestive tract is derived from the hindgut?
Latter 1/3 of transverse colon to the upper portion of the anus
What is trisomy 21?
Occurs when nondisjunction occurs during DNA replication leading to 3 copies of chromosome 21 in zygote
Intellectual disabilities
What is cri-du-chat syndrome?
Occurs when there is a deletion of the short arm on chromosome 5
Cognitive developmental delays
What is Turner’s syndrome?
Results from nondisjunction leading baby to be missing a sex chromosome
45 chromosomes, X
Phenotypically female
Will not sexually mature
Webbed neck
Broad chest
What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?
Results from nondisjunction leading baby to have an extra sex chromosome
46, XXY
Phenotypically male
Low in testosterone
Higher levels of FSH and LH
Undergo gynecomastia - development of mammary glands
Barre bodies
What are the common infectious agents? What are the common birth defects? (TORCH syndrome)
Toxoplasmosis
Rubella
Cytomegalovirus
Herpes simplex virus
Cause mental retardation, cerebral calcifications, hydrocephalus
What are the common types of teratogens?
Chromosomal
Infectious agents
Hyperthemia
Radiation
Chemical agents/drugs
Hormones
Maternal disease
Environmental chemicals
Advanced paternal age
What is the jugular notch? Where does it sit?
Dip between the clavicles on the top of the manubrium
Sits at level of T2
What is the sternal angle? Where does it sit?
Where the manubrium and the sternal body join
Sits at level of T4/T5 or rib 2
What is the xiphoid? Where does it sit?
Most inferior portion of the sternum
Sits at level of T10
What is the xiphisternal joint? Where does it sit?
Joint between the xiphoid and the sternal body
Sits at level of T9/T10
What is the manubrium? Where does it sit?
Superior most portion of the sternum
Sits at level of T3/T4
What is the acromion process?
Lateral most bony prominence
External portion of the shoulder
What is the costal margin?
Inferior most border of the thoracic cage
Begins at xiphoid process and continues down to bottom of rib cage
What are the anterior surface lines? Where are they found?
Anterior median line - down through the middle of the sternum
Midclavicular lines - down through middle of clavicles
What are the lateral surface lines? Where are they found?
Anterior axillary - anterior most portion of the lateral portion of the torso that starts around the front of the armpit
Midaxillary line - middle most portion that comes down from mid armpit
Posterior axillary line - posterior most portion of the lateral portion of the torso that starts around the back of the armpit
What are the posterior surface lines? Where are they found?
Posterior median line - travels down the SPs of the vertebrae
Scapular lines - travel down through the middle of the scapulae
Where does the upper lateral quadrant of the breast’s lymphatic drain to?
Axillary nodes
Where does the upper medial quadrant of the breast’s lymphatic drain to?
Axillary nodes
Contralateral breast
Parasternal nodes
Where does the lower medial quadrant of the breast’s lymphatic drain to?
Parasternal nodes
Contralateral breast
Inferior phrenic nodes
Where does the lower lateral quadrant of the breast’s lymphatic drain to?
Axillary nodes
Inferior phrenic nodes
Where does 75% of lymph drain to?
Axillary nodes
Where does the internal thoracic artery originate?
Off the subclavian artery laterally
What are the branches off the internal thoracic artery in order?
PAMS
Pericardiacophrenic
Anterior intercostals
Musculophrenic
Superior epigastric
What does the pericardiacophrenic artery supply?
Blood to pericardium of heart and diaphragm
What do the anterior intercostal arteries supply?
Blood from anterior intercostal muscles and ribs
What does the musculophrenic artery supply?
Blood to the diaphragm
Lateral terminal branch
What does the superior epigastric artery supply?
Blood to the superior muscles of the abdomen wall
Medial terminal branch
What are the OIAN of pectoralis major?
O – medial 1/3 of clavicle, sternum, upper ribs and their costal cartilage
I – lateral lip of intertubercular groove on humerus
A – flexion of GHS, horizontal adduction, and internal rotation
N – medial and lateral pectoral nerve
What are the OIAN of pectoralis minor?
O – ribs 3-5
I – coracoid process
A – protraction, depression and downward rotation of scapula
N – medial and lateral pectoral nerve
What are the OIAN of serratus anterior?
O – ribs 2-8
I – anterior surface of medial border of scapula
A – protraction and upward rotation of scapula – allows for abduction above 90 degrees
N – long thoracic nerve
What are the OIAN of subclavius?
O - Junction of 1st rib and its costal cartilage
I - Inferior surface of middle third of clavicle
A - Anchors and depresses clavicle
N - Nerve to subclavius (C5, C6)
What causes winging of the scapula?
Weakening of the muscles of the scapula resulting in inability to stabilize the scapula
Long thoracic nerve likely affected
What causes A-P expansion of the chest?
Interchondral portion of internal intercostal muscles contract to pull sternum anterior and superior to increase A-P volume of thorax
What causes M-L expansion of the chest?
External muscles contract to pull om the sides of the ribs causing them to swing out like a bucket handle to increase side to side diameter
What causes S-I expansion of the chest?
Diaphragm contracts to pull thoracic cavity down and push contents of abdominopelvic region down to create more vertical space for thoracic cavity
What nerve fibres are found in gray rami communicantes? Where are these fibres found?
Unmyelinated postganglionic sympathetic fibres
Found from T1-L2 along sympathetic chain
What fibres are found in the white rami communicantes? Where are they found?
Myelinated axons of pregangalionic sympathetic fibres
Found from T1-L2 along sympathetic chain
Where are lower motor neuron (LMN) cell bodies found?
Within the dorsal root in spinal cord and along cranial nerves
Where are primary sensory neuron cell bodies found?
Within gray matter of spinal cord
Where are preganglionic cell bodies found?
Within gray matter in the spinal cord
Where are postganglionic cell bodies found in sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous system?
Found in paravertebral chain in sympathetic nervous system
Found on or near effector organ in parasympathetic nervous system (intramural ganglia)
Where is paravertebral ganglia found?
Within the paravertebral chain
Running parallel to the spinal column
Where is prevertebral ganglia found?
On the anterior surface of the aorta
Running anterior to the surface of the spinal column
What are general visceral afferent fibres (GVA)?
Receives sensory information from visceral organs
Ex. heart, lungs, blood vessels, hollow organs
What are general visceral efferent fibres (GVE)?
Sends out motor information to visceral organs
Ex. glands, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
What are general somatic afferent fibres (GSA)?
Receives sensory information from somatic structures
Ex. skeletal muscles, skin, tendons
What are general somatic efferent fibres (GSE)?
Send motor information to somatic structures
Ex. skeletal muscles, skin, tendons
What are special sensory afferent fibres (SSA)?
Receives special sensory information from somatic structures
ex. sight and hearing
What are special visceral afferent fibres (SVA)?
Receives special sensory information from visceral structures
ex. taste and smell
What cranial nerves are associated with GVA?
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
CN X - vagus
What cranial nerves are associated with GVE?
Preganglionic parasympathetic
CN III - oculomotor
CN VII - facial
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
CN X - vagus
What cranial nerves are associated with SVA?
CN I - olfactory
CN VII - facial
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
CN X - vagus
What cranial nerves are associated with SVE?
CN V - trigeminal
CN VII - facial
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
CN X - vagus
CN XI - spinal accessory
What cranial nerves are associated with SSA?
CN II - optic
CN VIII - vestibulocochlear
What are thoracic splanchnic nerves made up of? What level are they derived from?
Contain postganglionic sympathetic nerve fibres
Derived from T1-T4
Note
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