UW PSYCH 101 FINAL (dr. andelin)

location of working memory

prefrontal cortex

location of consolidation and spatial memory

hippocampus

location of implicit procedural memory

cerebellum

location of implicit memory: fear processing

amygdala

location of explicit memory

temporal lobe

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events preceding a trauma

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events following a trauma

semantic memory

memory for knowledge and general facts

retroactive interference

access to older memories is impaired by newer memories

proactive interference

access to newer memories is impaired by older memories

causes of distortion

memory bias, flashbulb memories, misattribution, suggestibility, false memories

long-term potentiation (LTP)

enhanced activity that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons

context-dependent memory

the environment in which learning takes place provides a cue that aids your access to the information

state-dependent memory

being in the same internal state as when you learned the information provides a cue that helps you access the information

prospective memory

remembering events/obligations that will happen in the future

schema

an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world

network of association

an item's distinct features are linked in a way that helps us identify the item

three stages of memory

1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval

latent learning

learning without reinforcement

vicarious conditioning

learn to engage in a behavior or not after seeing others being rewarded or punished for that action

operant conditioning

learning by reinforcement

non-associative learning

individual learns about a stimulus

habituation

a type of non-associative learning that occurs when a person is exposed to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly. the individual habituates meaningless events around them - events that are not helpful or relevant.

sensitization

a type of non-associative learning that occurs when an individual is exposed to a stimulus for a long time or repeatedly and then has an increased behavioral response.

activation-synthesis model

dreams may have no meaning at all. they represent random activity from the brainstem that is sent to the cortex, where this information is synthesized into a story or explanation for these random inputs and memory consolidation.

freud's opinion of dreams

dreams provide insight to subconscious thoughts and they constitute a disguised attempt at wish fulfillment. this cannot be proven.

sociocognitive theory

hypnotized people aren't in an altered state, but they behave in a way that is expected.

disassociation theory

hypnosis causes an altered state in which awareness is separated

dual processing

the simultaneous processing of information at both the conscious and unconscious levels

suprachiasmatic nucleus

pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms

brainwaves in the normal waking state

beta waves

brainwaves just before sleep

alpha waves

global workspace model

no singular brain region is responsible for "awareness"

N3 waves

delta waves

REM waves

beta waves

N1 waves

theta waves

N2 waves

theta waves

three steps to thinking critically

1. what is the claim that i'm being asked to accept? 2. what evidence (if any) is provided to support the claim? 3. given the evidence, what are the most reasonable conclusions about the claim - should it be accepted or rejected?

wilhelm wundt

opened first psychology lab in 1879 in germany

structuralism

spearheaded by wilhelm wundt, margaret washburn, edward titchener. used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. belief that the conscious experience can be broken down into underlying parts

functionalism

spearheaded by william james and mary calkins; based on darwin's theory of evolution. advantageous variations are more likely to be genetically passed down and obsolete variations tend to die out. focused on adaptive purposes served by behavior & mental processes.

psychoanalytic theory

freud's belief that thoughts & actions are influenced by unconscious mental forces. "talking theory" like mental therapy. psychological disorders were thought to be caused by conflict between unconscious thoughts vs acceptable behavior

humanistic psychology

spearheaded by maslow & rogers. investigates how people grow to become happier & more fulfilled. focuses on people's innate, basic goodness.

cognitive psychology

spearheaded by miller & neisser: argued that learning was not as simple as behaviorists believed. study of how people think, learn, & remember.

five domains of modern psychology

biological, mental & physical health, cognitive, developmental, social & personality

dualism

descarte: mental & physical experiences are distinct & separate

behaviorism

spearheaded by john b. watson & b.f. skinner: describes behavior in response to environmental stimuli

six learning strategies (IMPACT)

improving (growth mindset) monitoring (plan & check progress) practicing (repeated, short sessions) attending (selective attention, ignore distractions) connecting (use cues) thinking deeply (elaboration)

institutional review boards (IRBs)

guardians of ethical guidelines, composed of administrators, legal advisors, trained scholars, & members of the community

four ethical standards

privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, protection from harm

case studies

method of research advantage: provides a lot of data about a specific case disadvantage: can be very subjective

observational studies

method of research advantage: can be very valuable in early stages of research disadvantage: observer bias, reactivity (people act differently if they know they're being watched)

self-reports

method of research advantage: easy to administer, cheap, fast disadvantage: self-report bias, people may not recall information accurately

correlational methods

method of research: using two or more naturally-occurring methods to determine the strength of the relationship between them. advantages: rely on naturally-occurring relationships that may take place in a real-world setting disadvantages: can't demonstrate causal relationships, can't show the direction of the cause/effect relationship (directionality problem). an unidentified variable may be involved (third-variable problem)

experimental methods

method of research: examine how one variable that is manipulated affects another variable. determines causality. advantages: provides control over independent (manipulated) variable, avoids directionality problem disadvantages: manipulating something other than the independent variable can affect the dependent variable & lead to inaccurate conclusions. often take place in an artificial setting.

confound

potential third variable

plasticity

capacity of the brain to develop new neuropathways

three ways of clearing neurotransmitters from the synapse

reuptake, enzyme degradation, diffusion

reuptake

reabsorbing neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron

enzyme degradation

the breaking down of neurotransmitters

diffusion

neurotransmitters float away

spatial resolution

determines where in the brain an action is occurring (i.e. PET scan, fMRI)

temporal resolution

determines when the brain is active; time-sensitive. (i.e. EEG, MEG)

causal resolution

determines whether something causes a specific brain behavior (i.e. transcranial magnetic stimulation)

three basic functions of the nervous system

1) receives sensory input, 2) processes sensory information by paying attention to it, perceiving it, & remembering it, 3) responds to the information by acting on it.

central nervous system

consists of nerve cells in the brain & spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

consists of the nerve cells outside of the brain & spinal cord

dendrites

short, branch-like extensions of the cell body that receive signals from neighboring neurons

cell body

information from other neurons is collected & combined

axon

transmits electrical impulses; vary tremendously in length.

terminal buttons

located at the end of the axon; knoblike structure

synapse

where communication occurs between neurons

neurotransmitters

chemicals of communication that travel to the receiving neuron's dendrites

three phases of neural communication

1) transmission, 2) reception, 3) integration

transmission phase

electrical signals travel along the axon and neurotransmitters are released from the terminal buttons in the synapse

reception phase

dendrites of other neurons receive chemical signals

integration phase

neurons assess & integrate the incoming signals

resting state

electrical charge inside the neuron is more negative than the outside

sodium ions

ions that enter & make the electrical charge inside the neuron more positive; if enough stimulation occurs, action potential is fired

action potential

message fires down the axon to release neurotransmitters. either fires or doesnt, no difference in strength. quickly repeated messages are more important

refractory period

returns the neuron back to its resting state using a sodium potassium pump (pumps out sodium & pumps in potassium). during this period, the neuron is less likely to respond to incoming stimulation

myelin sheath

fatty casing that insulates the axon, making fast neurocommunication possible

presynaptic neuron

the neuron that sends the signal

postsynaptic

the neuron that receives the signal

excitatory signals

signals the excite the neuron. if the total amount of input exceeds a certain threshold, an action potential is fired (depolarization)

inhibitory signals

signals that inhibit the neuron & decrease the likelihood of firing an action potential (hyperpolarization)

selective communication

communicate with other specific neurons, forming networks

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter involved in motor control over muscles, attention, memory, learning, & sleeping

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter involved in arousal & alertness "wake-up fairy" !!

seratonin

neurotransmitter involved in emotional states, impulse control, dreaming

dopamine

neurotransmitter involved in reward & motivation, motor control over voluntary movement

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

neurotransmitter involved in inhibition of action potentials, anxiety reduction, intoxication through alcohol

endorphins

neurotransmitter involved in pain reduction & reward

glutamate

neurotransmitter involved in the enhancement of action potentials, learning, & memory

agonists

drugs that enhance to actions of neurotransmitters (i.e. nicotine, caffeine)

antagonists

drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters

structures of the hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum

medulla

hindbrain structure involved in breathing, heart rate, and other survival mechanisms

pons

hindbrain structure involved in sleep, arousal, left-right body movement coordination

cerebellum

hindbrain structure involved in motor learning, coordination, & balance

substantia nigra

midbrain structure involved in initiation of voluntary motor activity

structures of the forebrain (subcortical structures)

thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

thalamus

"the messenger" forebrain structure involved in sending sensory information (except smell)

hypothalamus

forebrain structure involved in regulations of body functions (like sleep & temperature) & motivation (like hunger, thirst, sex)

hippocampus

forebrain structure involved in spatial navigation, the formation of new memories, and episodic memory

amygdala

forebrain structure involved in the association of emotions with experiences. rapid evaluation of sensory input -> emotional responses to external stimuli

cortical structures

occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes

occipital lobes

cortical structure involved in vision

parietal lobes

cortical structure involved in touch & spatial information

temporal lobes

cortical structure involved in hearing & memory

frontal lobes

cortical structure involved in planning, movement, & complex thought

phrenology

early idea that bumps on head could be measured to explain personality

somatic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that transmits signals to and from the central nervous system through nerves

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that automatically regulates the body's internal environment (i.e. heart, sweat glands)

parasympathetic nervous system

a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system & part of the greater peripheral nervous system, that returns the body to a resting state (heart rate decreases, respiration decreases, pupils contract, digestion increases)

sympathetic nervous system

a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system & part of the greater peripheral nervous system, that prepares the body for action (heart rate increases, respiration increases, pupils dilate, digestion decreases)

endocrine system

communication network that influences many aspects of the body, including mental activity and behavior. works together with the nervous system, but uses slower method of communicating by releasing chemicals from glands.

genotype

all genes, set since conception

phenotype

observable physical & psychological characteristics that can change

cerebral cortex/gray matter

external nerve fibers on the outside of the brain

corpus callosum

connects the two hemispheres of the brain & allows communication between them.

splitting the corpus callosum

used in treatment-resistant epilepsy: seizures disappeared but personality & intellect remained largely intact. visual information-sharing ended. behavior & agency were affected

left hemisphere of the brain

controls the right side of the body as well as speech

right hemisphere of the brain

controls the left side of the body

double-blind procedure

both the research participants & research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the participants have received the placebo or the treatment

materialism

mind & body work together & are inseparable

global workspace model

no one area of the brain is responsible for general awareness - your total experience results from the simultaneous activity of all the different brain regions

two-track mind

low mental road uses automatic processing that is fast & doesn't require a lot of resources but is unaware of most details. high mental road uses controlled processing that requires more attention and makes you very aware of your experiences, details, and mental activity.

inattentional blindness

failure to be aware of visual information when one's attention is directed elsewhere

subliminal perception

the processing of information by sensory systems without a person's conscious awareness. has little to no effect on complex thinking such as voting or purchasing behavior, but works well on people's motivational states

circadian rhythm

the regulation of biological cycles (brain activity, psychological processes, sleep, body temp, etc) into regular, daily patterns that are influenced by light & dark. maintained by multiple brain regions. light information is sent to the suprachaismatic nucleus in the hypothalamus, which sends signals to the pineal gland in the endocrine system, which influences the release of melatonin

beta waves

brain waves during normal waking state of consciousness

alpha waves

brain waves that occur during deep focus or relaxation

theta waves

brain waves that occur during N1 sleep

N1 sleep

drifting off; stage before true sleep. consciousness & mental activity starts to decrease. theta waves.

N2 sleep

sleep stage in which breathing becomes more regular. K-complexes and sleep spindles occur

k-complexes

triggered by abrupt noises; signals from brain mechanisms to shut out the outside world & keep you asleep.

N3 sleep

sleep stage marked by large delta waves. the brain is still processing outside stimuli to scan for potential danger. it's hard to wake someone in this stage, and if they do wake up, they are quite disoriented.

REM sleep

sleep stage in which brain is very active but the muscles are paralyzed. also called paradoxical sleep for this reason.

sleep cycle

N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> N1 -> REM ... typically repeats 5x per night

REM dreams

dreams that are bizarre and lack logic because the motivation, reward, emotion, & visual association parts of the brain are active, but the pre-frontal cortex (reasoning & logic) is less active.

activation synthesis

theory that dreams are the result of the brain's attempts to make sense of random brain activity by combining this random activity with stored memories

three reasons that sleep is adaptive & beneficial

restorative theory: sleep lets the brain & body rest, restore, & repair itself. circadian rhythm theory: sleep has evolved to preserve animals & humans from harm, because darkness is the most dangerous, so sleep keeps them quiet & inactive. consolidation theory: neural networks that are wired together during the waking period are consolidated during sleep.

sleep spindles

large bursts of brain activity that occur during N2 sleep. research demonstrates that they are important in memory consolidation

effects of long term sleep deprivation

decreased mental abilities, compromised immune system, microsleeps, messed up hunger cues, negative mental health

REM rebound

occurs when you finally sleep after a long period of sleep deprivation, your body enters REM sleep more quickly & will have more REM dreams than usual

insomnia

sleep disorder characterized by the repeated inability to sleep. common in women with anxiety

sleep apnea

sleep disorder characterized by halted breathing for short periods because of throat closure, and the individual must wake to gasp for air. people suffering with this disorder are typically unaware of these awakenings & their condition

narcolepsy

sleep disorder characterized by excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours, individuals sometimes go limp & collapse.

REM behavior disorder

sleep disorder characterized by the absence of muscle paralysis in REM sleep. individual acts out their REM dreams. caused by a neurological deficit.

somnambulism

sleep disorder characterized by sleepwalking. occurs during N3 sleep

sociocognitive theory of consciousness

people act in the way that they are expected to act during hypnosis

theory that hypnosis creates an altered state of consciousness

hypnosis analgesia

hypnosis for pain reduction

stimulants

drugs that increase behavior & mental activity (i.e. amphetamines, meth, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine). affect the neurotransmitters dopamine & norepinephrine

depressants

drugs that decrease behavior & mental activity (i.e. anti-anxiety drugs, alcohol). affect the neurotransmitter GABA

opiods

drugs that reduce pain & bring pleasure (i.e. heroin, morphine, codeine). affects endorphins

hallucinogens

drugs that change perceptions, thoughts, & emotions (i.e. LSD, mushrooms, MDMA (which is also a stimulant), cannabis (which can also be a stim/depres.)). affects seratonin, dopamine, norepinephrine

substance use disorder

occurs because drug use often affects dopamine activity. any behavior that increases dopamine is likely to be repeated because it is a reinforcer. can be genetically predisposed through inheriting a cluster of characteristics.

non-associative learning

person learns about a stimulus

habituation

a type of non-associative learning in which an individual is exposed to a stimulus for a long time (or repeatedly), and that event becomes less noticeable. typically happens when a stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding.

sensitizations

a type of non-associative learning in which an individual is exposed to a stimulus for a long time (or repeatedly) and then has an increased behavioral response. leads to heightened preparation to respond in an important situation

associative learning

understand how two or more pieces of information are related

classical conditioning

a type of associative learning in which an individual learns that one stimulus predicts another

operant conditioning

a type of associative learning in which an individual learns that a behavior leads to a particular outcome

observational learning

a type of learning by watching others in which an individual learns to change a behavior after watching someone else engage in that behavior.

modeling

a type of learning by watching others in which an individual learns to imitate a behavior.

vicarious conditioning

a type of learning by watching others in which an individual learns to engage in a behavior or not, after seeing others being rewarded or punished for that action.

acquisition

the gradual formation of a learned association between a conditioned stimulus (Pavlov's metronome) and an unconditioned stimulus (food) to produce the conditioned response (salivation)

extinction

conditioned response (salivation) weakens if the conditioned stimulus (metronome) is presented many times without the unconditioned stimulus (food).

spontaneous response

extinguished response reemerges after conditioned stimulus is represented

stimulus generalization

when stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (similar to the metronome) produce the conditioned response (salivation)

stimulus discrimination

learns to differentiate between two similar stimuli if one is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. food) and one is not

positive punishment

adding a task or thing as a punishment

negative punishment

taking something away as a punishment

positive reinforcement

adding something as a reward to encourage a behavior to be repeated

negative reinforcement

taking something away as a reward to encourage a behavior to be repeated

behavior modification

the use of operant conditioning techniques (secondary reinforcement) to replace bad behaviors with good

secondary reinforcers

reinforcers that are not necessary for survival

primary reinforcers

reinforcers that are necessary for survival (food, water, safety, social support)

latent learning

learning without reinforcement

three stages of memory

1) encoding, 2) storage, 3) retrieval

encoding

stage of memory in which the brain changes information into a meaningful neural code that it can use

storage

stage of memory that lets you maintain the information in your brain

retrieval

stage of memory that is the process of accessing the information later

human memory is imperfect

the brain is more complicated than a computer & changes over time the brain is unique - you remember information that is relevant to you & process it from your perspective the human memory sometimes fails

sensory storage

this type of memory storage allows perceptions of the world to appear as a unified stream of information rather than discrete sensations. when you close your eyes, your perception of the world stays put. memories are encoded in the sense they were experienced - usually auditory but can be visual or semantic. this type of storage lasts for less than 4 seconds

short-term storage

type of memory storage that maintains information for immediate use. encoded primarily auditory, but could also be visual or semantic. duration lasts for under 20 seconds, but can be extended infinitely with working memory manipulation. capacity for 7 items plus or minus 2. working memory also aids capacity

long-term storage

type of memory storage that stores information for access & use at a later time. encoding is primarily semantic, also visual & auditory. capacity & duration is probably unlimited.

maintenance rehearsal

repeating information over and over in an auditory fashion to acheive shallow memory encoding

elaborative rehearsal

processing information in a way that is meaningful to you in order to acheive deep encoding

network of association

an item's distinct features are linked in a way that helps us identify the item (apple is red so it's related to firetrucks, blood, stop sign - apple is a fruit so it's related to cherries, pears, bananas)

retrograde amnesia

people lose memories they already had

amnesia

losing the ability to store most types of information in long-term storage

anterograde amnesia

people lose the ability to form new memories

explicit memory

long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally described

episodic memory

type of explicit memory about personal experiences and when and where they happened

semantic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the knowledge of facts independent of personal experience

implicit memory

memories that you aren't conscious of (includes classical conditioning, procedural memory)

procedural memory

type of implicit memory involving motor skills, behavior, habits, & knowing how to do things

long-term potentiation (LTP)

enhanced activity that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons

memory consolidation

process by which immediate memories become lasting memories. occurs when new neural connections are created and prior neural connections get stronger. happens in the medial temporal lobes including the hippocampus

where memories are stored

in the particular cortical brain regions that engaged in the perception of the information - i.e. visual information stored in visual processing area

context-dependent

when you are in the same place/context where you learned the information, the environment provides a cue that aids your access to the information

state-dependent

when your internal state is the same as when you learned the information, your state provides a cue that aids your access to the information

prospective memory

memory that is future-oriented

retroactive interference

access to older memories is impaired by newer memories

proactive interference

access to newer memories is impaired by older memories

blocking

temporary inability to access information that is stored in the brain. often occurs because of interference from similar words, increases with age