SBI3U Animal: Structure and Function

• Growth

  • Most nutrients break down into smaller molecules that are used to build bone muscles and other types of cells/tissues

  • New cells are produced

• Maintenance

  • Damaged cells are repaired

  • Dead cells are replaced

• Energy

  • Fuels biological processes and physical activities

  • Obtain chemical energy carried by plants and animals

  • Stored in cells then released when needed

• Endothermic (warm-blooded)

  • Energy from food is used to maintain constant body temperature

  • More nutrients are needed to support loss of energy

  • Larger endotherms need a consume larger quantities than smaller organisms

• Ectothermic (cold-blooded)

  • Do not need as much energy to maintain body temperature

  • Energy comes from sources in their environment

  • Energy is not wasted in heating their body

  • Not as adaptable to cold environments

• Metabolism

  • The total of all chemical reactions in an organism

  • Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism

• Anabolism

  • Building up complex substances from simpler substances

• Catabolism

  • Breaking up complex substances into simpler substances

• Metabolic Rate

  • The rate at which metabolism occurs in an organism

• Body Size

  • The larger the body the more energy is required to stay alive

• Physical Activity

  • Muscles burn more energy than fat

• Sex

  • Males are typically larger in size and have a greater proportion of muscle mass than females of the same size, age, and fitness level

• Age

• Metabolic rate decreases with age

• Cells need energy to function

• Nutrients from food are digested and circulated throughout the body

• A nutrient is any substance that has a useful function in the body

• Calorie

  • Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C

• Organic and Inorganic

• Macronutrients and Micronutrients

• Example: Complex Carbohydrates or minerals (such as calcium)

• Organic

  • Produced by living organisms

  • Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins

• Inorganic

  • From rocks, soil, and seas

  • Water and minerals

• Macronutrients

  • Needed in large amounts

  • Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins

• Micronutrients

  • Needed in small amounts

  • Vitamins and Minerals

• Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

• Major source of energy

• Often called “sugars”

  • Ready source of glucose

• Excess stored as fat or glycogen

• Cellulose (fibre) is indigestible but important

• Concentrated source of energy

  • Double the energy of carbs

• Made of C, H, and O but in different ratios

• Used for insulation, forming cell membranes, protecting vital organs, and increasing nerve transmission

• Unsaturated Fats

  • Liquid at room temperature

  • Easier to digest

  • E.g. olive oil and canola oil

• Saturated Fats

  • Solid at room temperature

  • Harder to digest

  • E.g. butter and lard

• Most abundant compound in the body

• Used throughout the body

  • Structure for skin, bones, and organs

  • Also enzymes and hormones

• Made of 20 amino acids

  • 8 are essential (get from diet)

• Meat, eggs, milk, and fish

• Not an energy source

• Consumed in small amounts

• Vitamins

  • Muscle and growth function

  • Often act as coenzymes

• Minerals

  • Iron (blood)

  • Calcium (bones)

• Most abundant substance in the body

• 90% of blood plasma

• Transports all nutrients

• Forms extracellular fluid between cells

• Regulates body temperature

• Digestion is the process of converting food substances to a state in which they can be absorbed by the lining of the digestive tract

• Long tube open at both ends (Gastrointestinal tract or GI tract)

• Also has accessory organs

• Nutrients absorbed, waste eliminated

• Converts food into usable form

• Ingestion

• Digestion

• Absorption

• Egestion/Excretion

• Food enters the oral cavity (mouth)

• In humans, digestion begins in the mouth

  • Salivary Glands (3 Pairs)

  • Secrete Saliva

• Teeth chew, saliva moistens

• Enzyme in saliva (amylase) breaks down carbohydrates

• Muscular tongue pushes food back to pharynx

• Epiglottis - flap covers trachea so food does not get in

• Food stretches walls of esophagus and travels downward through waves of contractions called peristalsis

• Food enters the stomach as a bolus (A round ball of food that has been moistened so it can be swallowed)

• The bolus enters the stomach through the cardiac sphincter

• Stomach has extensive folds called rugae

• Layers of smooth muscle help stomach contract and break food down further

• Peristaltic contractions move the food to the stomach where storage and mixing of food occurs

• Cardiac sphincter at the top and pyloric sphincter at the bottom to keep food in stomach

• Food moves in and out of the stomach through sphincters (circular muscles)

• The stomach contracts and relaxes to churn the food (mechanical digestion)

  • Hydrochloric acid

    • Breaks down food, destroys bacteria in food

  • Pepsin

    • Breaks down proteins into polypeptides

  • Mucus

    • Protects stomach lining from acid and ulcers

• Some absorption occurs in the stomach

• Physical breakdown of food

  • Mouth (chewing) and stomach (churning)

• Movement of food

  • Peristalsis

    • Wave-like muscle contractions

• In mouth, stomach, and small intestine

• Chemicals (eg. HCl) and enzymes break down complex molecules in food

• Gastrin

  • Nerves in stomach detect food and release the hormone gastrin into bloodstream

  • Transported to gastric cells where it stimulates gastric juice release

• Gastric juice (HCl) is very acidic with a pH of 2.0

  • Kills microorganisms, stops amylase, and activates pepsinogen into pepsin (its active form)

• The active form of pepsinogen

• Protein-digesting enzyme produced in the stomach

• Chyme is released into duodenum through the pyloric sphincter

• Small Intestine

  • Up to 7 metres in length, 2.5 centimetres in diameter

  • 3 parts

    • Duodenum - enzymes added, digestion

    • Jejunum - digestion, some absorption

    • Ileum - majority of nutrient absorption

  • Secretes the enzyme peptidase which completes the digestion of proteins

• First section of the small intestine

• Basic pH (alkaline)

  • Neutralizes acidic chyme from stomach and inactivates pepsin back to pepsinogen

• Primary site of nutrient absorption to blood

• 80% of nutrient absorption occurs here - diffusion

• Only the small intestine can absorb lipids (fats), carbohydrates, and amino acids (from proteins)

• Small intestine is lined with villi and microvilli

  • Finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption

    • Villi

      • Small, finger-like projections

    • Microvilli

      • Microscopic projections of epithelial cells

• Capillary Network

  • All nutrients, except fats, enter bloodstream via capillaries

• Lacteal

  • Lymphatic vessel through which fats enter the circulatory system

• 1.5 metres in length

• AKA colon

• Primary function is to reabsorb fluids and electrolytes

• Harmless bacteria live here producing Vitamins K and B

• Any undigested food that remains is called feces

• Fecal matter is stored here before elimination through the anus

• Small organ attached to the caecum

• It was thought to be vestigial for a long time but now scientists believe that it may harbor small amounts of beneficial bacteria to repopulate intestinal flora after a bad diarrhea incident or antibiotic use

• The small intestine and the large intestine join at the caecum with the ileocecal valve

• Large intestine = caecum + colon + rectum

• 4 parts to the colon:

  • Ascending colon

  • Transverse colon

  • Descending colon

  • Sigmoid colon

• As digested matter passes through the colon, any excess water is absorbed back into the body

• Vitamins and ions are absorbed with the water

• Rectum holds solid waste until time for elimination through the anus

• Occurs in the large intestine

• Main components of feces

  • Cellulose

  • Living and dead bacteria

  • Water

• Toxic wastes are removed

• People who eat less cellulose have fewer bowel movements and are at risk of colon cancer

• Salivary Glands

  • Parotid Glands

  • Sublingual Glands

  • Submandibular Glands

• Liver

• Gallbladder

• Pancreas

• Parotid glands secrete watery fluid that contains salivary amylase

• Other two glands produce slippery mucus to help swallow food bolus

• Second largest organ in the body

• Produces bile

  • Emulsifies fats

• Filters the blood

  • Extracts toxins and prepares nutrients for circulation

• Stores glucose as glycogen

  • Regulates metabolism (blood sugar levels)

• Receives, stores, and concentrates bile from liver

• When fats enter duodenum, duodenum releases hormone CCK

  • CCK signals the gallbladder to secrete bile to duodenum to emulsify fats

• Finger/leaf shaped organ that cradles below and behind the stomach

• Secretes hormones and enzymes

• Acidity of chyme entering small intestine from stomach signals duodenum to secrete hormone secretin

  • Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate

• Other pancreatic digestive enzymes:

  • Lipases (break down fats)

  • Proteases (break down proteins)

  • Carbohydrases (break down carbohydrates)

• Secretes insulin and glucagon hormones to regulate blood sugar levels

• Maintenance of steady internal state

• Maintained through negative feedback loops

• Example: Insulin regulates blood sugar levels

  • Normal levels between 4-6 mmol/L

  • Blood sugar levels increase (e.g. after a meal)

    • Pancreas releases insulin

    • Uptake in glucose from blood to cell

  • Blood sugar levels decrease (e.g. skipped a meal)

    • Pancreas releases glucagon

    • Glucagon causes liver to release glucose into bloodstream

• Pepsin

  • Produced by stomach

  • Active in stomach

    • Only when pH is low

  • Acts upon proteins

• Bile

  • Produced by liver

  • Present in gallbladder and active in small intestine

  • Acts upon carbohydrates

• Amylase

  • Produced by salivary glands

  • Present/active in mouth/saliva

  • Acts upon starches

• Hydrochloric acid

  • Produced by stomach

  • Present/active in stomach

  • Provides proper pH for pepsin (to break down proteins)

• Lipases, Proteases, and Carbohydrases

  • Produced by pancreas

  • Present/active in small intestine

  • Act upon fats, proteins, and carbohydrates

• Chronic inflammatory bowel disease

• Most common in the small/large intestine

• Causes:

  • Possible hereditary link to autoimmune disease (25%)

  • Possible bacterial or viral infection

• Symptoms

  • Abdominal pain

  • Intestinal bleeding

  • Diarrhea

  • Nausea and vomiting

  • Loss of appetite

  • Weight loss

  • Fever

• Diagnosis

  • Barium X-ray

  • Colonoscopy

• Treatment

  • No cure

  • Medication to control inflammation or associated problems

  • Avoidance of “trigger foods”

  • Removal of blocked segments

• Cancer of tissues lining stomach

• Exact cause unknown

• Risk factors:

  • H. Pylori Infection

  • Smoking

  • Poor diet

• Symptoms

  • Nausea and vomiting

  • Heartburn and indigestion

  • Fatigue

  • Stomach pain

  • Feeling full after eating little

• Diagnosis

  • Barium swallow x-ray

  • Endoscopy or biopsy

  • CT scans

• Treatment

  • Radiation therapy or chemotherapy

    • To shrink tumour

  • Gastrectomy

    • Partial or total removal

• Scarring of the liver

• Leads to loss of liver function

• Caused by chronic damage to liver (e.g. hepatitis and alcoholism)

• Symptoms

  • Fatigue

  • Loss of appetite

  • Easy bruising and bleeding

  • Nausea and vomiting

  • Fluid retention in abdominal region

• Diagnosis

  • Blood tests

  • Ultrasound

  • Liver biopsy

  • CT or MRI scan

• Treatment

  • Damage cannot be reversed

  • Avoidance of alcohol

  • Liver transplant

• Arteries

  • Thick-walled vessels that always carry oxygenated blood away from the heart

• Veins

  • Thin-walled vessels that always carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart

• Arteries→Arterioles→Capillaries→Venules→Veins

• Transports blood under pressure

• Blood moves in a pulse-like wave throughout the circulatory system

• Arterioles

  • Have smaller diameter than arteries and are less elastic

  • Contraction and relaxation of arteries is the major determinant of the overall blood pressure

• Narrowest of all blood vessels

• RBCs travel in a single file

• Branching of the capillaries increases surface area for diffusion

• Connects the arterial and venous systems

• Thinner walls, larger diameter, less muscle than arteries, and they contain valves

• Contains 70% of total blood volume

• Most veins must work against gravity

  • Allow one-way flow of blood

  • Contraction of skeletal muscles moves blood toward heart

  • If veins are constantly stretched, they will lose their elasticity and varicose veins will form

• Size of your fist

• Hardest-working muscle in the body

• Contains 4 chambers

  • Left and right atria (receiving chambers)

  • Left and right ventricles (delivery chambers)

• The left and right sides of the right are separated by a muscular septum

• The heart is protected by the ribcage, sternum, and spine

• Pulmonary Circuit

  • Pumps blood to lungs

  • Right side of the heart

  • Low-pressure system

• Systemic Circuit

  • Pumps blood to the rest of the body

  • Left side of the heart

  • High-pressure system

Vena Cava (Superior & Inferior)→Right Atrium→Tricuspid Valve/Right AV Valve→Right Ventricle→Pulmonary Semilunar Valve→Pulmonary Trunk→Pulmonary Arteries→Lungs’ Capillaries→Pulmonary Veins→Left Atrium

Left Atrium→Bicuspid Valve/Left AV Valve/Matrial Valve→Left Ventricle→Aortic Semilunar Valve→Aorta→Smaller Systemic Arteries→Arterioles→Capillaries→Venules→Veins→Vena Cava (Superior & Inferior)→Right Atrium

• Delivers oxygenated blood directly to the heart

• Consists of the left and right coronary arteries

• The heart’s intrinsic contractions are maintained by the sinoatrial (SA) node in the right atrium

• The nerves can control the strength and rate of the heart’s contractions

• The SA node passes the signal through the atrioventricular (AV) node

• There is a 0.1 second delay the AV node before the signal travels to the ventricles

• The signal travels to the ventricles via the Perkinje fibres and the Bundle of His

• The signal delay cause the atria to contract simultaneously before the ventricles

The rhythmic contractions of the heart are due to special characteristics of cardiac muscle cells

• Plaque buildup in coronary arteries

• Prevents the heart from oxygen-rich blood

• Causes/Risk Factors

  • Smoking and Alcoholism

  • High Blood Pressure

  • High Blood Cholesterol

  • Stress

  • Diabetes

  • Obesity

  • Lack of Physical Activity

  • Age, Gender, and Family History

• Symptoms

  • Shortness of Breath

  • Angina

• Diagnosis

  • Electrocardiogram

  • Echocardiogram

  • Chest X-ray

  • Blood tests

• Treatment

  • Angioplasty

  • Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery

  • Medications

    • Decrease blood pressure, blood cholesterol, etc.

  • Lifestyle Changes

    • Increase physical activity and focus on healthy diet

• Bone Marrow Cancer: Abnormal WBC overproduction

• WBCs do not die properly

• Bone Marrow Overcrowding

• Reduced RBC, platelet production

• Causes/Risk Factors

  • Radiation/Chemotherapy

  • Benzene Exposure

  • Smoking

• Symptoms

  • Swollen, pain-free lymph nodes

  • Bleeding and bruising easily

  • Fevers and night sweats

  • Frequent infections

  • Fatigue

  • Unexplained weight loss

• Diagnosis

  • Physical Exam

    • Swollen lymph nodes, spleen, liver

  • Blood Test

    • High WBCs and/or Low hemoglobin and platelets

  • Bone Marrow Biopsy

• Treatment

  • Bone Marrow Transplant

  • Chemotherapy

  • Radiation Therapy

  • Stem Cell Transplant

• Heritable disease that affects connective tissue

• 25% of all cases are a result of a spontaneous mutation

• Symptoms

  • Tall and Slender

  • Retinal Displacement

  • Aortic Dilation

    • Easily puncturable leading to sudden death

  • Leaky Heart Valves

    • Heart murmour

• Diagnosis

  • Physical Exam

  • Genetic Analysis

    • Rarely Completed

• Treatment

  • Skeletal: Orthopedic Braces and Surgery

  • Vision: Surgery and Glasses

  • Heart: Medications, Valve Replacements, Aortic Repair

• A continuous cycle of contraction and relaxation

• Systole

  • Heart Contraction

• Diastole

  • Heart Relaxation

• Atria contract to further fill the ventricles

• The Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves forced closed due to an increase in ventricular pressure

• Ventricles contract to force blood from the heart

• Right Ventricle→(Open Pulmonary Semilunar Valve)→Pulmonary Trunk→Pulmonary Arteries

• Left Ventricle→(Open Aortic Semilunar Valve)→Aorta

• Blood pressure is increased (120 mm Hg)

• Blood enters all four chambers:

  • Pulmonary Veins→Left Atrium

  • Vena Cava (Superior & Inferior)→Right Atrium

• The Tricuspid and Bicuspid Valves are open, allowing blood to flow into the left and right ventricles

• The Pulmonary and Aortic Semilunar Valves close due to a decrease in ventricular pressure

• Blood pressure is reduced (80 mm Hg)

• Heart valves open and close at different times to ensure blood flows in the proper direction

• “Lub:” Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves close (Beginning of systole)

• “Dub:” Pulmonary and Aortic Semilunar valves close (End of Systole)

• Generally these cause blood vessels to get narrow and/or your heart to beat faster

• Some examples:

  • Poor diet

  • Kidney and hormone problems, diabetes, and high cholesterol

  • Family history or genetic predisposition

  • Lack of physical activity

  • Older age

  • Being overweight or obese

  • Some medicines

  • Tobacco and/or alcohol use

  • Stress

• Larger Arteries

  • Blood Pressure: High

  • Velocity: High

  • Total Area: Low

• Smaller Arteries

  • Blood Pressure: Slightly lower than larger arteries

  • Velocity: Slightly lower than larger arteries

  • Total Area: Slightly higher than larger arteries

• Arterioles:

  • Blood Pressure: Lower than smaller arteries

  • Velocity: Lower than smaller arteries

  • Total Area: Higher than smaller arteries

• Capillaries

  • Blood Pressure: Low

  • Velocity: Very low

  • Total Area: Highest

• Venules

  • Blood Pressure: Low

  • Velocity: Low

  • Total Area: High

• Veins

  • Blood Pressure: Low

  • Velocity: Moderate

  • Total Area: Low

• Altitude increases, oxygen concentration decreases

• Body temporarily increases blood pressure & heart rate

• Adaptation occurs over a couple of days

• Body produces hemoglobin and red blood cells

• Enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity

• Athletes live and train at high altitudes before events

• Increases red blood cell mass and hemoglobin

• Enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity in blood

• Extra energy boosts aerobic cellular respiration

• Improves VO2 max

• Delays lactic acid production, soreness, & fatigue

• Some athletes attempt blood doping

• Inject extra red blood cells before events

• Athlete donates a pint or two of their own blood

• Blood is placed in centrifuge and spins at high speeds

• Red blood cells (oxygen carriers) forced to bottom

• Liquid part (plasma) drawn off and re-injected into athlete

• Red blood cells stored (sometimes frozen)

• Day before competition, stored red blood cells are re-injected

• Improves blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity

• Blood Plasma

  • 55% of total blood volume

• Cellular Components

  • 45% of total blood volume

  • Buffy Coat

    • White Blood Cells

    • Platelets

  • Red Blood Cells

• Yellowish liquid component of blood

• Holds blood cells in suspension

• Carries cells, carbon dioxide, and proteins

• 55% of total blood volume

• Produced by bone marrow, stored in spleen

• Constantly destroyed and replaced

• Distinct biconcave shape

  • Flattened disc, pinched centre

  • Flexible for travelling through blood vessels

• No nucleus

• No mitochondria

• Contains special hemoglobin molecule

• Complex protein: 4 protein chains, central iron-containing heme group

• Iron: Gives red blood cells red colour

• Iron’s function: Binds with oxygen, oxgenates blood

• Oxygen’s carrying capacity: 4 oxygen molecules per hemoglobin molecule

• Iron recycling: Occurs in bone marrow

• Produced in bone marrow

• Larger than red blood cells, fewer in number

• Amoeboid shape

• Contain nucleus and lysosomes

• Part of the body’s immune response system

• Detect and defend against infection and disease

• Lysosomes: Digest foreign bacteria

• Pus formation: At the site of infection

• Pus Components: Living and dead white blood cells, bacteria

• Pus as natural “soap”

• WBC increase: Indication of body fighting infection

• Cancer of white blood cells

• Excess white blood cells in bone marrow

• Bone marrow unable to make other blood cells

• Can leave bone marrow, travel into bloodstream, and affect other organs

• Fragments of special cells from bone marrow

• Important for circulatory system repair

• Form blood clots

• Detects damaged blood vessels, bursts, and releases adhesive chemicals

• Platelets stick together at the site of damage

• Chemical reactions create strand-like fibrin molecules, form mesh (blood clot)

• Prevents blood loss, hold vessel wound together

• Clot supports wound until new tissue grows

Absence of clotting proteins in an individual

• Respiration

  • The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an individual and their environment

• The respiratory system supplies oxygen to body cells and removes carbon dioxide

1. Ventilation (Breathing)

2. External Respiration

3. Internal Respiration

4. Cellular Respiration

1. Inhalation: Oxygen is taken in from the external environment

2. Exhalation: Carbon dioxide is removed from the internal environment

• Inhaled

  • 78% Nitrogen

  • 21% Oxygen

  • 0.03% Carbon Dioxide

• Exhaled

  • 78% Nitrogen

  • 16% Oxygen

  • 5% Carbon Dioxide

• Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood vessels (pulmonary capillaries)

• Alveoli must be moist to allow for diffusion

• Oxygen diffuses into capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses out to alveoli

• The blood carries the oxygen from the lungs to the body cells

• Gas exchange between the blood and the body cells

• Oxygen diffuses out of the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in

• Allows for cellular respiration to occur

• Occurs in the mitochondria of every cell

• Cells produce ATP (energy) when glucose breaks down in the presence of oxygen

• Byproducts include water and carbon dioxide

• C6H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + ATP

• Nose (Nares)

• Nasal & Oral Cavities

• Pharynx

• Larynx

• Trachea

• Lungs

  • Bronchi & Bronchioles

  • Alveoli

• Diaphragm

• Air enters through the nares (nostrils)

  • Warmed (capillaries), Filtered (cilia), and moistened

• Inhaling through the mouth misses some steps

• Common path for air and food (throat)

• Branches into the esophagus and the trachea

• Vocal chords for sound production, breathing, and swallowing

• Connects the pharynx to the lungs

• Rings of cartilage protect the tube from collapsing

• Divides into a bronchus on each side

• Joined to the trachea by two bronchi

• The bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles

• Each bronchiole ends in an alveolar sac

• Tiny, hollow air sacs

  • One cell thick

• Surrounded by capillary system

• Functional unit sof the respiratory system

  • Where gas exchange occurs

• Increases surface area

• Large, dome-shaped sheet of skeletal muscle (voluntary muscle)

• Under the ribs, separates the thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) from the abdominal cavity (all other organs)

• Essential to breathing

• Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract

• Ribs move up and out, chest cavity enlarges, and pressure decreases

• Air rushes in from higher pressure environment

• Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax

• Ribs compress, chest cavity gets smaller, and pressure increases

• Air escapes to lower pressure environment

• Involuntary inhalation & exhalation

• Delivers oxygen to alveoli and removes carbon dioxide

• Medulla Oblongata

  • Brain region that controls breathing

Occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries due to concentration differences

• Chemoreceptors detect change in blood pH

  • Blood high in CO2 has lower than normal pH

• Drop in pH causes Medulla Oblongata to stimulate breathing

• Oxygen is carried by hemoglobin in red blood cells

• Hemoglobin picks up oxygen in high concentration areas

• Hemoglobin releases oxygen in low concentration areas

• Oxygen binds with hemoglobin via hydrogen bonds

• oxygen + hemoglobin → oxyhemoglobin

• Carbon dioxide is carried as bicarbonate ions in blood

• Red blood cells pick up carbon dioxide in high concentration areas

• Carbon dioxide converted to bicarbonate in red blood cells

• Bicarbonate converted back to carbon dioxide in low concentration areas

• Carbon dioxide released from red blood cells

• carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid

• Some carbon dioxide is carried by hemoglobin as carboxyhemoglobin

• Some carbon dioxide dissolves in blood plasma

• Influenced by many factors:

  • Age

  • Sex

  • Body Position

  • Strength of diaphragm

  • Strength of chest muscles

• The average human breathes 12-20 times per minute

• Tidal Volume: The amount of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath

• Inspiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of air inhaled after a normal inhalation

• Expiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of air forcefully exhaled after a normal exhalation

• Vital Capacity: The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled

• Residual Volume: The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forceful exhalation