Unit 5: Cognition

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, decreases with age

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, increases with age

extent to which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

extent to which a test yields consistent results

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

controls language reception (comprehension), left temporal lobe

controls language expression (speech), in left frontal lobe

impairment of language

believes humans are born with a built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules

smallest units that carry meaning in a given language (I in english)

the smallest distinctive sound unit (b, a, t in bat)

inability to remember where, when or how one learned something, leads to false memories

is the mechanism by which we restrict information.

we use structural encoding of superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics, such as lines and curves, of the stimulus as it first comes in.

occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories (elaboration).

associated with deep processing, emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

immediate brief recording of sensory, fraction of a second

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded into short-term memory.

is unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things.

a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously.

is encoding that requires our focused attention and conscious effort.

can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further.

can be a word rather than individual letters or a date rather than individual numbers.

is an active three-part memory system that temporarily holds information and consists of a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive.

also called declarative memory, is our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize.

are tasks that we perform automatically without thinking, such as tying our shoelaces or swimming.

is the relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass.

also called non-declarative memory, is our LTM for skills and procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled.

are systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes.

can be simple or complex.

the most typical examples of the concept

are more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others.

are preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic operations and then get more and more complex as we gain additional information.

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event, is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and the hippocampus involved in emotional memories.

can recall past but can’t form new memories

can make new memories, can’t recall past ones

experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables.

When we try to retrieve a long list of words, we usually recall the last words and the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle.

refers to better recall of the first items, thought to result from greater rehearsal Recency effect

can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, and mood or emotions.

is activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously.

spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions, facilitates remembering.

memory tricks when encoding information, these devices will help us retrieve concepts.

mental strategy of imagining yourself around a room

linking words with memory (one-gun, two-shoe)

Our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace

tendency to recall experiences that are congruent with one’s mood

things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again.

may result from failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an inability to access information from LTM.

is a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again.

Sometimes we know that we know something but can’t pull it out of memory.

disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

believed that repression (unconscious forgetting) of painful memories occurs as a defense mechanism to protect our self-concepts and minimize anxiety.

occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event.

Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information—putting words in someone else’s mouth—or remember something we see in the movies or on the Internet as actually having happened.

is a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to communicate our thoughts and feelings.

are the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes

Each language has a system of rules that determines how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate

The set of rules that regulate the order in which words can be combined into grammatically sensible sentences in a language

The set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

they begin to put together two-word sentences.

is a problem-solving strategy that involves a slow, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to many types of problems.

is a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

This approach involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that do not work.

involves reasoning from the specific to the general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is often correct but may be wrong if the members we have chosen do not fairly represent all of the members.

involves reasoning from the general to the specific.

a failure to use an object in an unusual way.

estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind.

a mental shortcut by which a new situation is judged by how well it matches a stereotypical model or a particular prototype.

refers to the way a problem is posed.

is this tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point.

is a tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas.

is a tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited.

the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid.

is a tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome of the event.

is a tendency to underestimate the extent to which our judgments are erroneous.

is the ability to think about a problem or idea in new and unusual ways, to come up with unconventional solutions.

use problem-solving strategies directed toward one correct solution to a problem

produce many answers to the same question (creativity tests)

are involved in test development in order to measure some construct or behavior that distinguishes people.

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with performance of pretested group

are scores established from the test results of the representative sample, which are then used as a standard for assessing the performances of subsequent test takers; more simply, norms are standards used to compare scores of test takers.

the same exam is administered to the same group on two different occasions, and the scores compared.

the score on one half of the test questions is correlated with the score on the other half of the questions to see if they are consistent.

is the extent to which an instrument accurately measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.

the test taker knows what he or she should do in response to questions or tasks on the test, and it is assumed that the test taker will do the best he or she can to succeed.

differ from performance tests in that the person being tested does not have a single, well-defined task to perform but rather is assessed on typical behavior or performance in a specific context.

generally include a large number of relatively easy items administered with strict time limits under which most test takers find it impossible to answer all questions.

are designed to predict a person’s future performance or to assess the person’s capacity to learn

measured psychomotor tasks to gauge intelligence, reasoning that people with excellent physical abilities are better adapted for survival and thus highly intelligent.

brought Galton’s studies to the United States, measuring strength, reaction time, sensitivity to pain, and weight discrimination, using the term mental test.

was hired by the French government to identify children who would not benefit from a traditional school setting and those who would benefit from special education.

developed the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale reporting results as an IQ, intelligence quotient, which is the child’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age, multiplied by 100; or MA/CA × 100.

developed another set of age-based intelligence tests