psych exam 3

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

learning that certain events occur together, events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

any event or situation that evokes a response

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the initial stage — when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response)

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response — when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other similar situations)

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced).

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

in operant conditioning research, (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. Any stimulus that when removed after a response, strengthens the response

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)

a pattern that defines how often a desired response every time it occurs

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

learning by observing others (social learning)

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. Opposite of antisocial behavior

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning

the process of retaining encoded information over time

the process of getting information out of memory storage

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

a newer understanding of short term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long term memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, tens to yield the best retention

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

explicit memory of personally experienced events, one of our two conscious memory systems

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage

the neural storage of a long term memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid simulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

the activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us to recall it

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

cognition about our cognition, keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

a mental image or best example of a category, matching new items to this provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit conscious reasoning

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness). we presume such events are common

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions