ap euro chapter 9

Isaac Newton and John Locke

Emilie Du Châtelet's translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica

Newton's → gravity = power of human reason

Newton's physics and Locke's psychology provided the theoretical foundation for reforming society

expansion was fueled by rising literacy rates

shift from religious to secular topics

publications like "The Spectator" and coffeehouses fostered discussion

Writers began to earn a living from their work, challenging traditional aristocratic values

challenged traditional intellectual, social, & political authorities → forced them to operate more transparently

influential writers and critics during the Enlightenment, championing reform and toleration

applied reason, criticism, and common sense

career was marked by run-ins with French authorities due to his irreverent writings

sought refuge in England, praising its intellectual and religious tolerance

published influential works promoting the ideas of Isaac Newton

call to "Crush the Infamous Thing" encapsulated their stance against the perceived intolerance in organized Christianity

wrote an essay → "What is Enlightenment?" in which he defined enlightenment as emerging from self-imposed immaturity through reason

credited Frederick the Great for promoting freedom of thought and religious ideas in his realm

goal was a religion without extremism and intolerance

nature was rational and that God who created nature must also be rational

Deists, like John Toland, advocated a natural and rational approach to religion

viewed God as a divine watchmaker who created the natural world and set it in motion.

two core beliefs: the existence of God and the idea of an afterlife with rewards and punishments based on earthly virtue

co edited the Encylopedia

associated with the philosophes

freedom of expression

Rousseau argued that civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature

In "The Social Contract", Rousseau outlined an abstract political structure to address the contemporary political and social ills

organized society's constraints are necessary

philosophs emphasized the importance of religious toleration (Voltaire especially)

He became involved in the case of Jean Calas, a Huguenot who was wrongfully executed

Voltaire's Treatise on Tolerance → exposed the injustice of the case

German playwright Gotthold Lessing wrote "Nathan the Wise," a plea for religious toleration

advocate for Islam Lady Mary Wortley Montagu wrote "Turkish Embassy Letters," she praised practice of vaccination against smallpox and the treatment of upper-class Turkish women

ppl started speaking highly of muslims and jews

some philosophes went beyond and criticized the churches and clergy

challenged the truthfulness of priests and the morality of the Bible

Baron d'Holbach and Julien Offray de La Mettrie, embraced positions close to atheism and materialism

Immanuel Kant's work titled "Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone"

philosophes critiqued traditional religions

stigmatized Jews and Judaism in the eyes of non-Jewish Europeans

Islam was portrayed negatively

This period known as Haskalah, involved engagement with the secular world and the study of Jewish religious texts

Baruch Spinoza who lived in the Netherlands, advocated a secularized version of Judaism, emphasizing reason

Moses Mendelssohn → Jewish Socrates

Spinoza, influenced by the science of his time, championed toleration while condemning traditional Judaism

Mendelssohn believed that Jews could uphold their religious practices while embracing Enlightenment values and religious toleration

social contract

natural rights: life, liberty, property

seperation of gov powers

Diderot and d’Alembert made the first volume

collective plea for freedom of expression, was heavily censored

included ideas of the time on religion, government, and philosophy: often had to be hidden in obscure articles

the power and resources of the earth and peace was more important than GOD

Italian aristocrat and philosophe, published On Crimes and Punishments→analysis of making punishments both effective and just

wanted positive law—to conform with the rational laws of nature

thought criminal of justice = speedy trials

Economic policy → philosophes saw existing legislation/administration prevented the operation of natural social laws

Their leading spokesmen were François Quesnay & Pierre Dupont de Nemours

primary role of government was to protect property

small peasants = large farms

believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system

abolish england mercantile system

best way to encourage economic growth was to allow individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests

government should provide schools, armies, navies, and roads

laissez-faire economic thought and policy, which favors a limited role for the government in economic life

human societies can be classified as hunting and gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural, or commercial

corruption around the royal court, the bureaucracy, midcentury wars, and power of the church

mostly occurred in France

aristocratic reform to democracy to absolute monarchy???

"The Persian Letters" to criticize contemporary institutions and shed light on the cruelty and irrationality of European life

admired british govern power structure

“The Spirit of the Laws" - no laws apply to all governments

favored a monarchical government tempered and limited by intermediary institutions

constitutional limits on monarchs' power and a separate legislature to formulate laws

led salons facilitated discussions btwn philosophs

montesquieu woman advocate

rousseau woman opppp

prussian emperor

strong implementation of enlightenment ideas

especially artistic aspects of enlightenment

LOVES FRENCH <3

admired Voltaire

created an extremely strong centralized government

brings in the nobility, clergy, growing middle class → part of bureaucracy

all of them are super loyal to him → gives government positions based on merit, need to be educated, middle class + nobility men go to university together creating commonality and less rivalry between social classes

recognizes the strength of religious tolerance → Jews and Catholics in Prussia

peter II her husband is CRAY

Catherine becomes EMPRESS cause peter the II gets KILLED.

serfs are the basis of noble power → do not get freed cause she does not want to piss off the nobles

wants warm water port + westernize russia

someone claims her throne, this dude says he finna free the serfs and peasants, there is a big slaughter of nobles, Catherine kills them ALL

many of her reforms become about controlling the serfs, takes land from church and gives to nobles so they have more serfs

austrian ruler

doesn’t enact a lot of enlightenment ideas

she streamlines + centralizes large parts of the government

Limits noble power over surfs cause she wanted to use them in her army

son - Joseph II

rules with his mother as co regent

radical

encourages religious tolerance

strips Roman Catholic church power so they are more dependent on him

abolishes serfdom

• nobles but serfs also get pissed

• he says you have to be paid for your work

• serfs scared of dealing with cash

• they liked the barter system instead

nobles get to determine the price of the crops, and they make sure that the serfs cannot afford it by making the price higher than their wage

bro Leopold reverse Joseph’s things

The Rococo style embraced lavish, often lighthearted decoration with an emphasis on pastel colors and the play of light

Neoclassicism embodied a return to figurative and architectural models drawn from the Renaissance and the ancient world

Rococo became associated with the aristocracies of the Old Regime

challenged Rococo's superficiality and embraced themes from ancient Greece and Rome

focused on moral themes and often depicted scenes of heroism and self-sacrifice from ancient history

did not wish to limit the power of monarchs

Rather, they sought to use their power to rationalize economic and political structures and liberate intellectual life

Most philosophes were not opposed to power if it benefited them in some way

he successfully built a state that garnered loyalty from various social groups, including the military, nobility, clergy, bureaucracy, and university professors.

he embraced religious toleration and encourage open discussions of Enlightenment ideas

Frederick also used the state's power to foster economic growth, encouraging agriculture development and supporting landowners through a land-mortgage credit association

Frederick the Great proposed a division of Polish territory to satisfy the interests of Russia, Austria, and Prussia while preventing conflict.

Prussia gained territory that united its regions, and Austria took southern Poland and other areas.

The Polish aristocracy, having maintained internal liberties at the expense of a strong central government, ratified the partition.

It showed that major powers in eastern Europe were willing to settle their rivalries at the expense of weaker states.

In Prussia and Austria, the rulers' reforms faced resistance from the nobility

Frederick the Great of Prussia became distant in his old age, allowing the aristocracy to assume more power.

In Austria, Joseph II's attempts to restructure society and administration faced opposition

Russia experienced the Pugachev Rebellion, a peasant uprising, which left Catherine the Great fearful