Gen bio 1, test 2

glycolysis

glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, it breaks down glycolysis and as a product makes a 3-carbon sugar called pyruvate. This is then able to enter the mitochondria

2 ATP, 2 NADH

a mechanical enzyme. Protons move through this channel through the inter membrane space, the energy is moved through the rotator shaft which is released and coupled with ADP and a high energy phosphate group to make ATP

In cellular respiration, the carbon atoms in glucose are oxidized because they lose H atoms. Oxygen is reduced because it gains H atoms.

the krebs or citric acid cycle, this occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria.

takes acetyl CoA produced by the oxidation of pyruvate and originally derived from glucose as its starting material, endures a series of reactions and a carrier remains attached to the enzyme and transfers the electrons to the electron transport chain directly. This process is made possible by the localization of the enzyme catalyzing this step inside the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

two molecules of carbon, three molecules of NADH, one molecule of FADH2 and one molecule of ATP or GTP

the Electron Transport Chain, this occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. First NADH gives up electrons which gives it back to NAD+. then NAD+ can either be used for glycolysis or the krebs cycle. Then the high energy electrons are picked up by complex 1 which accomplished the movement of protons from the matrix to the inter membran. the lipid Q transfers the electron to the other cytochromes until it reaches cyto. A which picks up protons to join that electron to produce H2O

Anaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen.

Alcoholic fermentation takes place in the cytosol of the cell, and releases the energy from glucose molecules into useable cellular energy called ATP. Alcoholic fermentation also creates ethanol (an alcohol) as a waste product, from which the process alcoholic fermentation gets its name

we are able to convert pyruvate into lactate, this only occurs if the electron transport chain is working at its maximum rate. B/c of this alot of pyruvate builds up and gets converted temporarily to lactate so it can be converted to NAD+

Pyruvate is converted into lactate since there are no mitochondria, the lactate is used to make 2 ATP per molecule and then released into the blood plasma which will travel to the liver

1. many poisons can bind to the electron transport chain for example, cyanide can bind to cytochrome A easily which stops the passing of electrons

2. DNP, ( used to be a diet pill) has the ability to form channels in the innermitochondrial membrane that would make it leaky to protons.

mainly seen in babies but it has a lot of mitochondria and lots of capillaries. Uses stored fat to generate heat rather than store excess energy.

1. Since they can’t shiver they have a lack of thermal insulation.

2. They have the inability to move away from cold areas and have an inability to use additional ways to keep warm

3. Nervous system is not fully developed and doesn’t respond properly to cold

Proteins are converted to amino acids which are then eithier used for protein synthesis or they’ll be deanimated and used for ATP synthesis in the Krebs cycle

( also known as fatty acids) fats and phospholipids are broken down into glycerol or fatty acids, glycerol will then enter glycolysis and go through that process to make ATP while fatty acids will be converted to Acetyl CoA which is used in the Krebs cycle

Energy is inversely proportional to wavelength

No, plants would not grow well in the green light. Plants appear to be green because they reflect this wavelength of light. Thus, plants need to encounter light except green to initiate photosynthesis.

In the fall, plants slow down and finally stop production of the chlorophylls before the other \n pigments. In addition, the chlorophylls are broken down faster. As a result, we see the yellow, \n orange, red, and sometimes pink pigments. We may see a transition as these pigments break \n down at different rates.

the pigments move with the solvent. Some move faster than others because some have more polarity than others, the more polar it is the more it will stick to the cellulose in the paper making it slower

The two chlorophylls are more abundant and reflect more light (are brighter).

helps maintain the leaf’s structure. Has an outer layer that secretes a wax to waterproof it, this prevents water loss and the exchange of gasses which is essential to photosynthesis

tiny pores where the plants breathe takes in carbon dioxide, and releases oxygen. It also assists in monitoring the movement of water via transpiration.

Thylakoid Space- a continuous fluid in the thylakoid

Thylakoid membrane- Where the photosynthetic pigments are

Inner membrane- Protects the Stroma from the cytosol

a progression of reactions that happens in the stoma of chloroplasts in a plant cell. The chemical reactions convert carbon dioxide into glucose with the assistance of ATP and NADPH to overall make sucrose

Rubisco takes co2 and adds it to a 5-carbon sugar ( the carbon of co2 is being fixed) with each cycle it spits out 1 3-carbon sugar (G3P) this then gets connected to other 3-carbon sugars to make glucose and fructose which are combined to make sucrose (reducing CO2)

Carbon fixation is the process of adding a carbon to a 5-carbon sugar. It is the first step of the Calvin \n Cycle and involves the enzyme rubisco.

They would make ATP through the electron transport chain moving protons from the mitochondrial \n matrix to the inner membrane space. The protons would be allowed to move through ATP synthase and \n this would create ATP inside the matrix.

1. photooxidation occurs in photosystem 2, it takes the electrons from water to replace the ones that have been excited and then moves them to the primary acceptors

2. The electrons are passed to the plastoquinone ( a mobile carrier) which passes the high-energy electrons and moves the proton against the gradient

3. Then photosystem 1 passes on the high-energy electron onto a coenzyme of high-energy electrons. this makes NADP to NADPH for the calvin cycle (makes o2 during the first step in photosystem 2)

(synthesis of DNA) we get an exact replica of each chromosome made

They do proof reading to make sure all the chromosomes are the same as well as protein synthesis

biosynthesis, prepares to make 2 cells which makes it almost double in size

to pass the G1 checkpoint the cell has to almost be double to size and has to have room to grow. To pass the G2 checkpoint it needs to go through proof reading and if it has to many mistakes/mutations it’ll be sent to die.

is a cell passes through the G2 checkpoint without being properly proofread it could potentially produce cells with mistakes in their DNA

it then enters prophase the longest phase of mitosis. the chromosomes begin to condense, the mitotic spindle begins to form and the nuclear envelope begins to move away from the chromosomes.

1.G0

2. G1

3. S-phase

4. G2

5. mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)

all the chromosomes are aligned in the center plane of the cell

The kinetochore fibers shorten and non kinetochore fibers lengthen to move chromosomes to opposite poles.

Dissolves the spindle apparatus, decondensed DNA, and reforms the nuclear envelope.

its purpose is to generate haploid genetically unique gammates. ( to produce unique offspring

the chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope pulls away so that the apparatus spindle can have access to chromosomes.

the chromosomes get attached to the spindle apparatus which will grow and line them up on the center plane. Then they are separated at the centromere making 4 genetically unique cells

prophase- 46 metaphase-46 anaphase-92 telophase-92

end of mitosis-46

Contact inhibition enables noncancerous cells to cease proliferation and growth when they contact each other

Fibroblasts play a critical role in normal wound healing.These cells produce the proteins that hold vessels, tissues, muscles, and other structures in place

stated that the offsprings traits are an average of its parents, which isn't true

only one of the two gene copies present in an organism is distributed to each gamete (egg or sperm cell) that it makes, and the allocation of the gene copies is random.

the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene.

a condition where in the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele. EX: Brown eyes are a trait that exhibits complete dominance: someone with a copy of the gene for brown eyes will always have brown eyes. Blue eyes, on the other hand, are recessive: if a copy of the gene for brown eyes is present, the blue-eyed gene will be completely masked

e occurs when neither trait is truly dominant over the other. This means that both traits can be expressed in the same regions, resulting a blending of two phenotypes. EX:If a white and black dog produce a gray offspring,

exemplified by a plant that bears flowers with two distinct color phenotypes. For instance, a white-spotted red flower could be caused by a cross between a red flower and a white flower.

The effect of one gene being dependent on the presence of one or more 'modifier genes'. Epistasis occurs when one gene interacts with another to affect its function. EX: a man may have the gene for a widows peak but could also have the gene for being bald so the widows peak gene isn’t important because it depends on the bald gene

The Y chromosome contains a "male-determining gene," the SRY gene, that causes testes to form in the embryo and results in the development of external and internal male genitalia. Sex determination is solely based on the X and Y chromosomes ( female and male genitalia) while sexual identity refers to the total expression of who you are as a human being

incomplete dominance is when a dominant allele, or form of a gene, does not completely mask the effects of a recessive allele. In this case, the normal allele for the gene produces an enzyme responsible for breaking down lipids. A defective allele for the gene results in the production of a nonfunctional enzyme.

A child heterozygous for a recessive disease has a phenotype unlike either of his homozygous parents

the oxidation/reduction step.

In step 6 the sugar is oxidized and NAD+ is reduced. \n This reaction is coupled to the synthesis of a high energy phosphate bond which is transferred to ADP in step 7 to make ATP. ( 4 ATP is made here)

1. To trap glucose in the cell (Glucose-6-Phosphate can’t leave the cell). It is the first step in converting glucose into gylcogen. (first step of glycolysis)

2. Both are precursors for glycogen synthesis.

shown in picture

G1

prophase

Crossing over plays a role in both ssexual and asexual reproduction

production of ATP from ADP by a direct transfer of a high-energy phosphate group

“Allosteric” literally means “other site”. These inhibitors bind to a regulatory site away from the active site and in so doing change the shape of the enzyme so that it is less complementary to the active site. Competitive inhibitors compete with substrates for the active site, thereby slowing the reaction down.

A- oxidation/reduction B-substrate level phosphorylation

ATP & NADPH

\n Reduces the H+ gradient so less ATP can be synthesized.

A-Yes, it would speed up to try to make up for loss

B-O2 consumption would increase in an attempt to rebuild the proton gradient.

Metaphase

Meiosis produces 4 genetically unique haploid cells, mitosis produce two genetically identical diploid cells

6, 12