AP Bio

Cellular Respiration

1. Mitochondria

2. Cytosol

3. Glucose

4. Glucose

5. Acetyl Coa

6. ATP

7. Acetyl CoA

8. Citric Acid Cycle

9. Electrons carried Via NADH and FADH2

10. Electron transport chain

11. chemosis

12. Glycolysis

13. Pyruvate Oxidation

Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms. Carbon can form up to four covalent bonds due to its four valence electrons.

Hydrogen bonds form between a hydrogen atom and oxegen

pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution, determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions present in the solution.

Catabolic reactions break down molecules to release energy, while anabolic reactions build molecules using energy.

Functional groups:

• Hydroxide ion

• Carbonyl

• Carboxyl

• Amino

• Thiol

• Phosphate

Monosaccharides have the general formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

Function of a monosaccharide: The primary energy source for cellular activities and a building block for larger carbohydrates like disaccharides and polysaccharides.

gluclose fructose galactose

carbohydrate

Flashcard: Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that serve as energy storage (e.g., starch, glycogen) and structural components (e.g., cellulose, chitin) in organisms.

providing a quick energy reserve for the body."

Flashcard: "Function of starch: Energy storage in plants; provides glucose for metabolism and growth; insoluble in water, good for long-term storage."

gives plants their shape and structure

Flashcard: Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and fungal cell walls, providing support and protection.

energy

Flashcard: Phospholipids form the structural basis of cell membranes. They consist of a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, arranging in a bilayer.

Flashcard: Steroids may function as signaling molecules that regulate various physiological processes in the body, such as inflammation, metabolism, and immune response.

Proteins being brought to membrane

14. Plasma membrane

15. nucleus

16. Smooth ER

17. cytoplasm

18. Rough ER

19. ribesomes

20. vesicle

21. golgi apparatus

photosynethesis

22. Thykaloid

23. stroma

24. stroma

25. light

26. H20

27. Light reactions

28. O²

29. ATP

30. NADPH

31. CO2

32. calvin cycle

33. sugar

34. NADPH+

35. NADPH

36. NADH

37. NADH

38. ignore

39. FADH2

40. FAD

41. H+

42. H20

43. H+

44. Electron corner complex

45. ADP

46. ATP

47. Electron transport chain

48. chemiosis

49. Phospholipid Bilayer

50. High concentration

51. low concentration

52. channel protein

53. carrier protein

54. diffusion

55. passive transport

56. passive transport

57. transport pump

58. ATP

59. active transport

Signal Transduction

60. Extracellular fluid

61. cytoplasm

62. plasma membrane

63. ligand

64. signaling molecule

65. receptor

66. reception

67. transduction

68. response

69. activation of cellular response

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Primary structure: sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary structure: local folding patterns like alpha helices and beta sheets.

Tertiary structure: overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain.

Quaternary structure: arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein complex.

1. Phosphate group: Provides energy for cellular processes.

2. Sugar molecule: Forms the backbone of the DNA strand.

3. Nitrogenous base: Determines the genetic information stored in the nucleotide.

A and G are purine nitrogenous bases

A and G are purine bases. C and T are pyrimidine bases.

Flashcard: DNA replication is a semi-conservative process where the DNA double helix unwinds, and each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in a 5' to 3' direction, resulting in two identical DNA molecules.

1. Leading Strand: The leading strand is the DNA strand that is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication. It is able to be synthesized continuously because its orientation allows for DNA polymerase to move continuously toward the replication fork.

2. Lagging Strand: The lagging strand is the DNA strand that is synthesized discontinuously during DNA replication. This strand is oriented in the 3' to 5' direction relative to the replication fork, which means DNA polymerase must synthesize it in short segments called Okazaki fragments.

3. 5´ and 3´ ends: These terms refer to the chemical structure of DNA and RNA strands. The 5' end is where the phosphate group of one nucleotide attaches to the 3' carbon of the sugar molecule of the adjacent nucleotide. The 3' end is where the hydroxyl group (-OH) of the sugar attaches to the phosphate group of the next nucleotide.

4. Okazaki Fragments: Okazaki fragments are short DNA fragments that are synthesized on the lagging strand during DNA replication. These fragments are later joined together by DNA ligase to form a continuous strand.

5. Origin of Replication: The origin of replication is a specific sequence of DNA where replication begins. It is recognized by initiator proteins that bind to this site and start the process of unwinding the DNA strands to initiate replication.

6. RNA Primer: An RNA primer is a short segment of RNA that is synthesized by the enzyme primase during DNA replication. The RNA primer provides a starting point for DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase.

7. DNA Polymerase: DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing DNA chain during DNA replication. It can also proofread and correct errors during replication.

8. Helicase: Helicase is an enzyme that unwinds the double-stranded DNA helix ahead of the replication fork during DNA replication. It separates the two DNA strands so that they can be used as templates for DNA synthesis.

9. DNA Ligase: DNA ligase is an enzyme that catalyzes the joining (ligation) of DNA fragments together during DNA replication and repair. It plays a crucial role in sealing the nicks between adjacent Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand to produce a continuous DNA strand.

DNA codes for a protein through a process called transcription, where a specific segment of DNA is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. This mRNA carries the genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome, where it is translated into a sequence of amino acids to form a protein.

Transcription:

1. Initiation:

   • Location: Nucleus.

   • RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of the DNA near the gene to be transcribed.

   • The DNA double helix unwinds, and RNA synthesis begins.

   • RNA polymerase adds complementary RNA nucleotides (A, U, C, G) to the growing mRNA strand.

2. Elongation:

   • Location: Nucleus.

   • RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand in a 3' to 5' direction.

   • It adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing mRNA molecule, following the base-pairing rules (A-U, C-G).

   • The mRNA transcript grows in the 5' to 3' direction.

3. Termination:

   • Location: Nucleus.

   • RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence on the DNA.

   • The mRNA transcript is released from the DNA template.

   • RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA, and the mRNA is processed (e.g., capping, splicing, polyadenylation).

Translation:

4. Initiation:

   • Location: Cytoplasm.

   • The mature mRNA transcript moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

   • The mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit.

   • The initiation complex (small ribosomal subunit + mRNA + initiator tRNA) forms and binds to the start codon (AUG) on the mRNA.

5. Elongation:

   • Location: Cytoplasm.

   • The large ribosomal subunit joins the complex.

   • The ribosome moves along the mRNA in a 5' to 3' direction.

   • Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring specific amino acids to the ribosome.

   • The ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids, forming a growing polypeptide chain.

6. Termination:

   • Location: Cytoplasm.

   • The ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) on the mRNA.

   • Release factors bind to the stop codon, causing the ribosome to release the completed polypeptide chain.

   • The polypeptide is released from the ribosome.

   • The ribosome dissociates into its subunits, and the mRNA is released to be recycled or degraded.

1. RNA Polymerase:

   • Function: RNA polymerase is an enzyme that makes RNA from a DNA template during transcription. It reads the DNA sequence and builds a matching RNA molecule.

2. Promoter:

   • Function: A promoter is a specific DNA sequence that signals the start of a gene. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter to begin transcribing the gene into RNA.

3. Operator:

   • Function: An operator is a DNA sequence near a gene that can control whether the gene is turned on or off. It acts as a switch for gene expression.

4. Repressor:

   • Function: A repressor is a protein that can bind to the operator and block RNA polymerase from transcribing the gene. It regulates gene expression by preventing transcription.

5. Stop Codon:

   • Function: A stop codon is a sequence of nucleotides in mRNA that signals the end of protein synthesis during translation. When a ribosome encounters a stop codon, it stops adding amino acids to the protein.

fuel for living things

measure of randomness

ATP powers cellular work by storing energy in its high-energy phosphate bonds. This energy is released when ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down) into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). The released energy is used to drive mechanical work (muscle contraction, movement), transport work (moving molecules across cell membranes), and chemical work (synthesizing macromolecules). ATP is continuously regenerated through cellular respiration, ensuring a constant supply of energy to fuel essential cellular processes.

they speed them up

The active site chnages to better bind with the substrate

explain how metabolic pathways are regulated by allosteric enzymes and coopertivity

1. Nucleus:

   • Function: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes. It regulates gene expression and controls cellular activities by directing protein synthesis.

2. Mitochondria:

   • Function: Powerhouse of the cell; generates energy (in the form of ATP) through cellular respiration, using oxygen and nutrients.

3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

   • Function: Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis and transport. Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs and toxins, and regulates calcium levels.

4. Golgi Apparatus:

   • Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids synthesized in the ER. It prepares these molecules for distribution to other parts of the cell or for secretion outside the cell.

5. Lysosomes:

   • Function: Contain digestive enzymes that break down cellular waste, old organelles, and engulfed foreign particles (e.g., bacteria). They are essential for cellular recycling and maintaining homeostasis.

   6. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):

   • Function: Regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell. It provides structural support, protection, and communication with neighboring cells.

   7. Vesicles:

      • Function: Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs involved in various cellular processes, including transport, storage, and digestion.

        • 8. Ribosomes:

             • Function: Ribosomes are cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. They read the genetic instructions encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins according to the genetic code. Ribosomes can be found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where they synthesize different types of proteins destined for various cellular functions.