a. Carbohydrates(starch) b. Lipid(triacylglycerol) c. Protein(enzyme) d. Nucleic acid(DNA)
All living things are made up of these four classes of biological molecules
within cells, small organic molecules are joined together to form larger molecules
Macromolecules
are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms
Monomers
the small building-block molecules to make a polymer
Polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks
Dehydration reaction/ Condensation reaction
occurs when two monomer bond together through the loss of a water molecule
Hydrolysis
process of disassembling polymers to monomers
a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction
Enzyme
are macromolecules that speed up the dehydration process
Carbohydrate
include sugars and the polymers of sugars
Monosaccharides
also known as simple sugars, the simplest carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
are carbohydrate macromolecules
these are polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
Sugars
what carbohydrate has monosaccharides that have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH20
Glucose(C6H12O6)
the most common monosaccharide
Carbonyl group
Aldose
Ketose
• what is highlighted?
functions as an aldehyde
functions as a ketone
Disaccharide
formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
Glycosidic linkage
the covalent bond that forms disaccharides
Maltose • Glucose & Glucose
disaccharide used in brewing • give the two monosaccharides bonded
Lactose • Glucose & Galactose
disaccharide used in transporting the sugar in milk • give the two monosaccharides bonded
Sucrose • Glucose & Fructose
disaccharide used in transporting sugar in plants • give the two monosaccharides bonded
Polysaccharides
the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural rolls that are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages
Starch • amylose & amylopectin
a storage polysaccharide of plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers
stored in plants as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids • give the glucose monomers
Glycogen
a storage polysaccharide in animals
stored mainly in liver and muscle cells of humans and other vertebrates
Cellulose
a structural polysaccharide that is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells
Chitin
a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
it also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi
a. Monosaccharide b. Disaccharide c. Oligosaccharide d. Polysaccharide
(c) more than 2 (d) more than 100
Simple carbohydrates
also known as sugars, are maid up of shorter chains of molecules and are quicker to digest than complex carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates
raises blood glucose levels for longer and produce a more lasting elevation in energy
provides the body with energy better
Fiber
a type of carbohydrate that the body can’t digest
Lipids
the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers
are hydrophobic because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons which form non-polar covalent bonds
Fats
lipids that are constructed from 2 types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
separates from water because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and exclude the fats
its major function is energy storage
Glycerol
Fatty Acid
(1) a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon (2) consists of carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton; varies in length(number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds
Ester linkage
Triacylglycerol/triglyceride
(1) joins three fatty acids to glycerol (2) results of (1)
Carboxyl group
Hydroxyl group
Saturated fatty acids
fatty acids that have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and NO double bonds
solid at room temperature
what most animal fats are
Unsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids that have one or more double bonds
liquid at room temperature
what plant fat and fish fat are
a. Cis fat b. Trans fat
• indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double bond (a) if hydrogen are present in the same plane; causes bending (b) if the hydrogen atoms are on 2 different planes
Phospholipids
where 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol
the major component of all cell membranes
Phospholipid bilayer a. hydrophobic b. hydrophilic
result from the structure of phospholipids found in cell membranes (a) the 2 fatty acid tails in a phospholipid; points toward the interior when phospholipids are added to water (b) the phosphate group in a phospholipid and its attachment
Steroids
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol
an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes
essential in animals but high levels in blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease
Cortisol
a steroid hormone that when released, raised your cholesterol level
a. cortisol b. corticosterone c. aldosterone d. progesterone e. Beta-estradiol f. testosterone
Glycolipids
a type of complex lipids comprising carbohydrates, fatty acids, sphingolipids or a glycerol group
mainly describe any compound containing one or more monosaccharides residues bound by glycosidic linkage
found on the leaflet of cellular membranes
maintains membrane stability & facilitates cell-cell communication
Proteins • Hemoglobin
account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells • give the protein that helps in the transfer of oxygen in blood
Enzymatic proteins
Function: selective acceleration of chemical reactions Example: Digestive ________ catalyze the hydrolysis of bonds in food molecules
Storage proteins
Function: Storage of amino acids Examples: CASEIN, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids for baby mammals. Plants have storage proteins in their seeds. OVALBUIM is the protein of egg white
Defensive proteins
Function: protection against disease Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria
Transport proteins
Function: transport of substances Example: HEMOGLOBIN, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body
Hormonal proteins
Function: coordination of an organism’s activities Example: INSULIN, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose, thus regulating blood sugar concentration
Receptor protein
Function: response of cell to chemical stimuli Example: receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by other nerve cells
Structural proteins
Function: support Examples: KERATIN is the protein of hair, horns, feather and other skin appendages. COLLAGEN and ELASTIN proteins provide a fibrous framework in animal connective tissues
Contractile & motor proteins
Functions: movement Examples: Motor proteins are responsible for the undulations of cilia and flagella ACTIN and MYOSIN proteins are responsible for the contraction of muscles
Gene Regulatory proteins
Bind to DNA in particular locations and determine whether or not certain genes will be read.
Allows cell to becomes specialized for different functions and respond to changes in their surroundings
Sensory proteins
detect environmental changes like light and respond by emitting or producing signals that call for a response
a. Amino acids b. Polypeptide c. Protein
(a) Are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups (b) polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids (c) consist of one or more polypeptides
Amino group
R groups
the differing chains that differ the properties of amino acids
Glycine (Gly/G)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Alanine (Ala/A)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Valine (Val/V)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Leucine (Leu/L)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Isoleucine (Ile/I)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Methionine (Met/M)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Phenylalanine (Phe/F)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Tryptophan (Trp/W)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Proline (Pro/P)
nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Serine (Ser/S)
polar side chains; hydrophilic
Threonine (Thr/T)
polar side chains; hydrophilic
Cysteine (Cys/C)
polar side chains; hydrophilic
Tyrosine (Tyr/Y)
polar side chains; hydrophilic
Asparagine (Asn/N)
polar side chains; hydrophilic
Glutamine (Gln/Q)
polar side chains; hydrophilic
Asparitic acid (Asp/D)
electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Acidic(negatively charged)
Glutamic acid (Glu/E)
electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Acidic(negatively charged)
Lysine (Lys/K)
electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Basic (positively charged)
Arginine (Arg/R)
electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Basic (positively charged)
Histidine (His/H)
electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Basic (positively charged)
Peptide bonds
links amino acids
Polypeptide
a polymer of amino acids
range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers
has a unique linear sequence of amino acids
a. Amino end b. Carboxyl end
Primary structure
the sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of letter in a long word
determined by inherited genetic information
Secondary Structure a. Alpha helix b. Beta-pleated sheets
its coils and folds result from hydrogen bond between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone (a) a coil structure (b) folded structure
Tertiary structure
determined by interactions between R groups, rather than interaction between backbone constituents
Hydrogen bond
can form between the different amino acids
Disulfide bridge
can form between 2 cysteine side chains
are strong covalent bonds that may reinforce the protein’s structure
Ionic bond
can form between groups with opposite charge
van der Waals attraction
weak attractions between atoms due to oppositely polarized electron clouds
Hydrophobic exclusion
the tendency of the multiple oil droplets that are present in water to coalesce into fewer and larger droplets.
Quaternary structure
results when 2 or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule
Denaturation
altercations in secondary to quaternary structure without altering the primary structure
the loss of a protein’s naive structure due to alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature or other environmental factors
this kind of protein is biologically inactive
Chaperonins
are protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins
X-ray crystallography
determines a protein’s structure
Nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) spectroscopy
determines a protein’s structure which does not require protein crystallization
Bioinformatics
uses computer programs to predict protein structure from amino acid sequences
Gene
a unit of inheritance that programs the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
made of DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
type of nucleic acid
provides directions for its own replication
direct synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and through mRN, controls protein synthesis
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
type of nucleic acid
Protein synthesis • Transcription • Translation
occurs in the ribosomes; has 2 stages
DNA is copied to RNA
RNA is used to produce proteins
Polynucleotides
polymers of nucleic acids