AP Psychology Vocabulary

the minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Example
the minimum amount of light needed for you to see the flame. If the match is just barely visible to you in the darkness, it's operating at or near your absolute threshold for vision.

(1) the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (2) adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information

Example
(1) When you look at something close to you, like a book, the lens in your eye changes shape to focus the image onto your retina, allowing you to see the text clearly. (2) When learning about a new scientific theory, you adjust your existing knowledge and beliefs to incorporate the new information, which is an example of cognitive accomodation.

a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for rapidly attaining a high standard

Example
Tom's achievement motivation pushes him to constantly strive for excellence in his work, aiming to surpass expectations and achieve significant accomplishments in his career.

tests designed to assess what a person has learned

Example
In a school setting, achievement tests are used to assess students' knowledge and skills in specific subjects, such as math, reading, or science. These tests measure how well students have learned the material taught in class and provide valuable feedback to educators about students' academic progress and areas where they may need additional support.

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

Example
When studying for a test, you might read your notes out loud. This is an example of acoustic encoding because you're encoding information into your memory through auditory stimuli.

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Example
A child learns to ride a bike through the process of acquisition. Initially, they observe others riding bikes, then they practice with training wheels, gradually gaining balance and coordination until they can ride independently.

a neural impulse; a brief electrical sharge that travels down an axon

Example
When you touch a hot stove, sensory neurons in your skin generate action potentials that travel to your brain, signaling pain and prompting you to quickly withdraw your hand. This rapid communication via action potentials helps protect your body from harm by initiating a reflexive response to remove yourself from danger.

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy

Example
In a business meeting, active listening involves maintaining eye contact, nodding, and asking relevant questions to demonstrate understanding and engagement as colleagues present their ideas and concerns.

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, lights, income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

Example
Sarah's adaptation-level phenomenon causes her to quickly adjust her expectations based on her recent experiences. After living in a noisy apartment for several months, she becomes accustomed to the noise level, so when she moves to a quieter neighborhood, she initially perceives the new environment as unusually quiet until she adapts to the lower noise level.

Similarly, someone who moves to a new city may initially feel excitement and novelty, but as they become accustomed to their surroundings, their baseline for what constitutes an acceptable living environment may shift.

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Example
John's addiction to nicotine developed after years of smoking cigarettes. Despite knowing the health risks, he struggles to quit due to the strong cravings and withdrawal symptoms he experiences when attempting to stop. His addiction has significant negative consequences on his health, relationships, and overall well-being, yet he finds it challenging to break free from the habit.

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Example
During adolescence, Sarah experiences significant physical, cognitive, and emotional changes as she transitions from childhood to adulthood. She grapples with issues such as identity formation, peer relationships, and academic pressures while navigating the challenges of puberty and emerging independence. Throughout this period, Sarah's experiences shape her sense of self and lay the foundation for her future development and aspirations.

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

Example
When faced with a stressful situation, such as a near-miss accident while driving, Sarah's adrenal glands release adrenaline into her bloodstream. This hormone triggers the body's "fight or flight" response, increasing her heart rate, boosting energy levels, and sharpening her focus, allowing her to react quickly to the danger.

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety

Example
Sarah engages in aerobic exercise by going for a brisk jog around the park every morning. During this cardiovascular activity, her heart rate increases, and she breathes deeply, delivering oxygen to her muscles and increasing her endurance. Regular aerobic exercise helps Sarah maintain a healthy weight, improve her cardiovascular health, and reduce stress levels.

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

Example
During a heated argument, Mark's aggression manifests as yelling, slamming doors, and making threatening gestures. His frustration and anger lead him to act aggressively, seeking to assert dominance and intimidate others in the situation. However, Mark's aggressive behavior often escalates conflicts and strains his relationships with others.

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics

Example
In psychology, an algorithm could be as simple as following a set of instructions to solve a math problem or as complex as using a decision-making algorithm to determine the best treatment approach for a patient based on their symptoms and diagnosis.

relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Example
During a relaxing meditation session, Sarah's brain produces alpha waves, which are associated with a state of calm wakefulness. These rhythmic electrical impulses occur predominantly in the occipital lobe of the brain and are characterized by a frequency range of 8 to 12 cycles per second. Sarah's alpha waves indicate that her mind is in a relaxed and focused state, conducive to stress reduction and mental clarity.

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Example
When a stranger's car breaks down on the side of the road, John stops to offer assistance without expecting anything in return. He helps the driver change a flat tire, providing support and ensuring their safety, even though it delays his own plans for the day.

the loss of memory. includes anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories), Retrograde amnesia (loss of memories of events or information that occurred before the onset), Post-traumatic amnesia, Dissociative amnesia

Example
After a severe head injury in a car accident, Sarah experiences retrograde amnesia, causing her to forget events and information from the period leading up to the accident. Despite retaining her ability to form new memories, Sarah struggles to recall details about her life before the injury, including her job, relationships, and significant life events.

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up functions and associated energy and mood changes

Example
John illegally obtains and consumes amphetamines to enhance his focus and energy levels while studying for exams. John soon experiences negative side effects such as insomnia, agitation, and irregular heartbeat.

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion

Example
When Sarah encounters a threatening situation, such as a dog barking aggressively at her, her amygdala, a part of the brain associated with processing emotions and detecting threats, becomes activated. The amygdala triggers a fear response, causing Sarah to feel anxious and prompting physiological reactions such as increased heart rate and heightened awareness.

an eating disorder in which a person diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

Example
Emily's struggle with anorexia nervosa becomes evident as she consistently restricts her food intake, obsessively monitors her calorie consumption, and exhibits intense fear of gaining weight. Despite being significantly underweight and experiencing physical health complications such as fatigue and dizziness, Emily continues to perceive herself as overweight and remains fixated on achieving an unrealistically low body weight.

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation

Example
Benzodiazepines reduce the activity of neurons). Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) increase levels of serotonin. Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs) increase the levels of serotonin and norepinephrine.

drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder

Example
Typical Antipsychotics (First-generation Antipsychotics) block dopamine receptors in the brain. Atypical Antipsychotics (Second-generation Antipsychotics) affecting not only dopamine but also serotonin receptors in the brain. Atypical antipsychotics are associated with a lower risk of movement disorders compared to typical antipsychotics.

a personality disorder in which the person exhibits a lack of conscience for wrong-doing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist

Example
Sarah's coworker, diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder, consistently manipulates colleagues for personal gain, disregarding ethical boundaries and showing no remorse for their actions.

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistant anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Example
Emily experiences persistent and excessive worry and fear about various aspects of her life, including her health, finances, and relationships, despite there being little or no actual threat.

inpairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (imparing speaking) or to the Wernicke's area (imparing understanding)

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

tests designed to predict a person's future performance

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Example
Sarah, a toddler, encounters a new type of fruit she has never seen before—a peach. She already knows what an apple looks like and how to eat it. When she sees the peach, she calls it an "apple" because it is round and has a similar color. Sarah is assimilating the new information about the peach into her existing schema (mental representation) for apples, even though they are different fruits.

areas of the cerebral cortext that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences

Example
Whenever Sarah's dog hears the sound of her shaking a bag of treats, he immediately comes running into the kitchen, expecting a reward. Over time, the dog has learned to associate the sound of the bag shaking with the possibility of receiving a treat. This is an example of associative learning, where the dog has formed a connection between two stimuli—the sound of the bag shaking and the expectation of receiving a reward.

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on seperation

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of the three key symptoms extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a perticular way to objects, people, and events

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition

Example
John attributes his failure on a test to external factors, such as the test being too difficult or the teacher not explaining the material well. Conversely, when he succeeds, he attributes his success to internal factors, such as his intelligence or effort.

the sense or act of hearing

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

the process where the unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Example
While driving a familiar route to work, Sarah effortlessly navigates through traffic, adjusts her speed, and anticipates upcoming turns without consciously thinking about each action. This is an example of automatic processing, where well-practiced tasks and routines are performed with minimal conscious effort or attention.

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands that the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

Example
When Sarah suddenly encounters a threatening situation, such as a car swerving in front of her, her autonomic nervous system immediately kicks into action. The sympathetic division of her autonomic nervous system mobilizes her body's fight-or-flight response, causing her heart rate to increase, her breathing to become rapid, and her muscles to tense up

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

Example
After hearing news reports about shark attacks at the beach, Sarah becomes convinced that swimming in the ocean is extremely dangerous despite statistically low chances of encountering a shark. Her perception of the risk is influenced by the availability heuristic, where she overestimates the likelihood of shark attacks because vivid and memorable instances of such events are readily available in her memory. As a result, Sarah avoids swimming in the ocean, even though the actual risk may be much lower than she perceives it to be.

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking)

Example
John, who struggles with smoking addiction, undergoes aversive conditioning therapy to help him quit. During the therapy sessions, whenever he tries to smoke a cigarette, he receives a mild electric shock or experiences nausea-inducing substances. Over time, John begins to associate smoking with these unpleasant sensations, leading to a conditioned aversion to cigarettes.

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to household language

drugs that depress the activity of the centeral nervous system, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment

Example

In the past, barbiturates like phenobarbital were frequently prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety, insomnia, and seizures. However, due to their high potential for abuse, addiction, and overdose, their medical use has declined significantly in favor of safer alternatives. Today, barbiturates are primarily used in veterinary medicine as anesthetics or anticonvulsants, and they are classified as controlled substances due to their significant risks and limited therapeutic benefits in humans.

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

Example
Sarah's basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy her body requires to maintain basic physiological functions, such as breathing, circulation, and cell repair, while at rest. Even when Sarah is asleep or inactive, her body still consumes energy to sustain these essential processes. BMR accounts for the largest portion of Sarah's total daily energy expenditure and is influenced by factors such as her age, gender, weight, and body composition.

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

according to Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

the study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explination by principles of learning

Example
Sarah's dog, Max, learns to sit on command by receiving a treat each time he successfully performs the behavior.

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

For example, A behaviorist psychologist might conduct an experiment where rats learn to press a lever to receive a food reward. By manipulating the reinforcement schedule (e.g., providing food only after every third lever press), the psychologist investigates how behavior is shaped by consequences.

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Example
Sarah strongly believes that vaccines cause autism, despite overwhelming scientific evidence to the contrary. Even after reading multiple studies debunking this myth and hearing explanations from medical experts, Sarah continues to hold onto her belief.

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Example
Sarah uses binocular cues to perceive depth and distance while driving. As she approaches a traffic light, her brain integrates visual information from both eyes, such as differences in the angles of the light relative to each eye, to accurately judge how far away the light is and how quickly she needs to stop.

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Example
Sarah uses biofeedback therapy to learn stress management techniques. Sensors monitor her physiological responses like heart rate and muscle tension. Through real-time feedback, Sarah learns to recognize and control stress using relaxation techniques. Over time, she becomes adept at regulating her body's responses and reducing stress levels.

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

the use of medications, medical procedures, and other biological interventions to treat psychological disorders or alleviate symptoms, acting directly on the patient’s nervous system

Example
Sarah, who has been diagnosed with depression, undergoes biomedical therapy in the form of antidepressant medication. Her psychiatrist prescribes a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), which works by increasing the levels of serotonin in her brain, a neurotransmitter associated with mood regulation.

an integrated approach that incoporates biological, psychological, and social-culutral levels of analysis

a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania

a small region on the retina of the eye where the optic nerve exits the eye and no photoreceptor cells (rods or cones) are present.

anaylsis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Example
Sarah gazes at a painting and notices the individual brushstrokes, colors, and shapes that make up the artwork. Her brain processes these visual elements individually and then integrates them to form a complete perception of the painting. This is an example of bottom-up processing, where sensory information is analyzed and assembled into a coherent perception without relying on preexisting knowledge or expectations. Another ex. analyzing the individual letters, words, and grammar rules. You start by decoding each letter to form words, then you piece together the words to understand sentences and paragraphs.

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Example
Sarah's body reacts: Her heart starts racing, her muscles tense up, and her palms get sweaty. This physiological response happens simultaneously with Sarah's emotional experience. She feels fear and starts to panic. This subjective feeling of fear occurs independently but simultaneously with the physiological response.

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

emotional release

Example
After a stressful day at work, John goes to the gym and channels his frustration into an intense workout. As he lifts weights and runs on the treadmill, John feels a sense of release and relief, as if he's purging his pent-up emotions.

the brain and spinal cord

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Example
Sarah is passionate about environmental conservation and attends a presentation on renewable energy. During the presentation, the speaker provides compelling evidence and logical arguments in favor of transitioning to renewable energy sources. Sarah carefully considers the information presented, evaluates the evidence, and responds with favorable thoughts towards adopting renewable energy practices.

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions incluse processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Example
While riding her bike, Sarah effortlessly maintains her balance, smoothly executes turns, and adjusts her speed without consciously thinking about it. This coordinated movement is made possible by Sarah's cerebellum, a region of the brain responsible for fine motor control and coordination.

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-proccessing center. The outermost layer of the brain.

Example
When Sarah engages in a conversation with a friend, her cerebral cortex springs into action. This outer layer of her brain processes complex information, allowing her to comprehend her friend's words, formulate responses, and express her thoughts and emotions. As Sarah listens attentively, her auditory cortex analyzes the sounds of her friend's voice, while her prefrontal cortex helps her interpret the meaning of the conversation and plan her replies. Meanwhile, her motor cortex coordinates the movements of her lips and tongue as she speaks.

failing to notice changes in the environment

Example
Sarah is watching a magic show where the magician performs a series of tricks involving sleight of hand and misdirection. During one trick, the magician switches a red scarf for a blue one while Sarah is momentarily distracted by a flash of light. Despite the scarf being right in front of her, Sarah fails to notice the change and remains unaware that the color has switched.

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

the biological clock; regular body rythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

a humanistic therapy, deveolped by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to faciliate clients' growth

Example
Sarah’s therapist creates a supportive and nonjudgmental environment where Sarah feels comfortable expressing her thoughts and emotions freely. The therapist listens empathetically, validates Sarah's experiences, and refrains from offering direct advice or interpretation. Instead, the therapist helps Sarah explore her feelings, gain insights into her experiences, and develop her own solutions and coping strategies.

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tude in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

Example
When Sarah listens to music through her headphones, the vibrations from the sound waves travel through her ear canal and reach her cochlea, a spiral-shaped organ in her inner ear. Inside the cochlea, thousands of tiny hair cells convert these vibrations into electrical signals that are transmitted to her brain. As a result, Sarah perceives the various pitches and tones of the music, allowing her to enjoy her favorite songs with clarity and richness.

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

all the mental activites associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavioral therapy (changing behavior)

Example
Sarah works with her therapist to identify and challenge negative thought patterns and beliefs that contribute to her depressive symptoms.

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughs are inconsistent.

Example
After Sarah learns about the negative environmental impacts of fast fashion, she feels conflicted because she enjoys shopping for new clothes but also wants to reduce her ecological footprint. This inner conflict between her beliefs and actions represents cognitive dissonance.

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Example
Sarah visits a new city and spends the day exploring its streets, landmarks, and neighborhoods. As she wanders around, she mentally constructs a cognitive map—a mental representation of the city's layout and surroundings.

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

Example
In a study, Sarah is asked to perform memory tasks while her brain activity is monitored in real-time.

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

Example
During a group therapy session, participants discuss recurring themes and symbols that emerge in their dreams despite never having shared these experiences before. These shared symbols and motifs, such as images of snakes or flying.

giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

Example
For example, when faced with a decision about which college to attend, a student from a collectivist culture (like Asian cultures) may consider factors such as how their choice will affect their family's reputation or their ability to support their parents in the future.

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths refected by the object

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Unproven health care treatments intended to serve as alternatives to conventional medicine, which typically are not widely taught in medical schools, used in hospitals, or reimbursed by insurance companies. When research shows a therapy to be safe and effective, it usually becomes part of accepted medical practice.

Example
Sarah, who experiences chronic back pain, explores complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) options alongside traditional treatments. She tries acupuncture, chiropractic adjustments, and herbal supplements to alleviate her symptoms. While continuing to follow her doctor's recommendations for physical therapy and medication, Sarah finds that incorporating CAM therapies into her treatment regimen helps manage her pain and improve her overall well-being.

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Example
"bird" include various species such as sparrows, robins, and eagles, all of which share common features like feathers, wings, and the ability to fly.

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 - 11 years old) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Example
When presented with a problem involving conservation, such as pouring liquid from a tall, narrow glass into a short, wide glass, John understands that the amount of liquid remains the same despite the change in appearance.

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association witha primary reinforcer

Example
a treat

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Example

Salivating

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Example

Bell

hearing loss cause by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Example

Sarah experiences conductive hearing loss after developing an ear infection that results in fluid buildup in her middle ear. As a result, sound waves are unable to travel effectively through her ear canal and middle ear to reach the inner ear where auditory processing occurs. Consequently, Sarah struggles to hear sounds clearly, especially at lower volumes or frequencies. Despite the fact that her inner ear and auditory nerve are functioning normally, the obstruction or damage in her outer or middle ear prevents sound from being transmitted effectively, resulting in conductive hearing loss.