Chapter 12 The Mongols

The Mongol moment in history represents an enormous cultural encounter between ___ & ___ civilizations in Eurasia

Mongol conquer & rule varied everywhere, and their decline & collapse in the 1300s-1400s allowed for ___ ___ to revive ___ ___

___ was the most difficult & extended conquest; Invasion started in the ___, where there was massive destruction; in the south (Song dynasty), Mongols were far less ___; more concerned with ___ the local population

Outcome of Mongol conquest was a ___ China, persuading some elites that Mongols had the ___ __ ___

Mongols extracted as much ___ as possible from China, meaning they accommodated aspects of Chinese ___ & ___ 

China's Mongol ruler 1271-1294, initiated Yuan dynasty

Khubilai Khan's rule evoked values of a ___ ___-___ Chinese emperor: Capital moved to Beijing; Chinese administration, tax, & postal techniques used; supported Confucian rituals, Daoist temples, esp. Tibetan Buddhism

Mongol rule in China was still harsh, exploitative, foreign, & resented; Marco Polo reported some Mongol officials treating the Chinese like ___

The Mongols didn't become Chinese or ___ every part of their ___; Many elites preferred living in traditional ___, and the ___ ___ was largely ignored; they relied on foreigners (esp ___) as officials and kept the top decision-making roles for themselves

Few mongols learned Chinese, and the law discriminated against Chinese; Mongols honored & supported ___/___, unlike the ___ ___

intermarriage was allowed; Chinese learning the Mongol script was ___; Mongol women didn’t ___ ___ & ___ ___ w/ men; Khubilai Khan kept Mongol tradition of reliance on ___ ___ (especially favorite wife, Chabi)

Mongol rule in China barely lasted more than a ___; mid 1300s: ___ among Mongols, rising ___, ___, ___ ___ forced them out; rebel forces triumphed by 1368 and replaced Yuan by the ___ dynasty (1368-1644)

The Ming dynasty attempted to eliminate all signs of ___ ___; discouraged Mongol names/dress; promoted ___ learning & orthodox ___ ___ from earlier dynasty models

Emperor Yongle sponsored an 11,000 volume ___, ordered the construction of the Forbidden City & Temple of Heaven, and launched Indian Ocean ___; 2 empresses wrote instructions for ___ ___ & ___

Politically, the Ming dynasty reestablished the ___ ___ & created a highly ___ government; power concentrated in hands of the emperor with a cadre of eunuchs loyal to the him exercised authority, to dismay of official bureacrats

Restored millions of acres, rebuilt canals/reservoirs/irrigation works, planted est. 1B trees; economy rebounded as a result, trade flourished, pop. grew, and China was the best governed & most prosperous civ at the time

Persia was an important part of ___ ___ ___; incorporated into the Islamic world by 900 CE w/o losing ___ ___ or ___, but still deeply influenced by Arabic Islam

Persia’s impact on Arabic Islamic world was equally profound: ___ techniques, ___ practices, ___ all shaped culture in Islamic heartland as well as transformed ___ ___

Mongol conquer in Persia was more abrupt than in China; first invasion (1219-1221) by ___ ___, then 30-year 2nd assault by grandson ___, who became first __-___ (Subordinate Khan) of Persia

Persia was not prepared for Mongol attack: they were shocked by Mongol victory, who they saw as ___; Mongols brought a degree of ___ Persia had never seen

Mongols damaged Persian/Iraqi agriculture: heavy ___ pushed ___ off land; Mongol goat & sheep herds turned farmland into ___ and sometimes ___; result: underground ___ ___ neglected & agricultural land reduced to waste

Some sectors of Persian economy gained: increased ___ production, ___ industry benefitted from contact w/ China

Persia transformed Mongols much more than China did; extensive use of Persian ___, where Persians still had major roles; effort to repair irrigation works & rebuild cities and ___ ___ under Gharan's (1295-1304) reign; court members & elites learned some ___, and some Mongols became ___ and ___ ___

When Mongol dynasty of Hulegu's descendants collapsed (1330s), Mongols ___ into Persian society instead of being driven out; Persians saw this as…

In Persia, collapse of il-khanate led to period of ___ ___; only reunited w/ emergence of ___ ___ in the late 1400- early 1500s; ___ leadership

Significance of Safivid Empire: forced ___ version of Islam, which gained popular support & shaped Persian/Iranian culture; caused ___ ___ into the heart of Islam - almost all of Persia’s neighbors practiced ___ (esp. ___, who they conflicted with for a century)

When the Mongols invaded Russia, its ___ ___ was already gone; governed by ___ ___

Mongols invaded Russia with stunning ferocity, now armed w/ ___ & ___ ___ from China & Persia; ___ ___ of survivors/surrendered cities ___ throughout the empire or ___

To the Mongols, Russia was the ___ ___ (after Kipchak peoples of Caspian/Black Seas); to the Russians, it was the Khanate of the ___ ___; Mongols didn’t ___ Russia like China or Persia

Russia had little to offer: unsophisticated ___, no major ___ ___ connections; Mongols could maintain ___ lifestyles in the steppes of Black/Caspian seas while staying in Russia's reach

Mongols exploited Russia; Russian princes appointed by khan were required to send ___ to Mongol capital Sarai; ___ created heavy burden, esp. on ___; ___ ___ sent tens of thousands of Russians into ___

Russian Orthodox Church flourished under Mongols; policy of ___ ___; exemption from ___

Russian ___ who joined Mongol raids received share of loot; Cities that resisted were ___ while cities that surrendered were left mostly ___ (ex. ___, primary collector of ___ for the Mongols)

Mongols were far less influenced by/assimilated in ___ cultures than in China & Persia

Mongol impact on Russia was still greater than on ___ or ___; Russian princes were left alone if they paid ___ & ___; adopted Mongol…

Mongol policies facilitated ___ rise in the new Russian state, which used the Mongol courier system, and strengthened ___ ___

___ among Mongols, ___, & growing ___ ___ allowed Russians to break Mongol hold by end of 1400s; series of aggressive leaders, conquered neighboring Russian-speaking states; foundation for ___ ___ in 1500s -1600s

Some Russian church leaders saw Russia as a ___ ___; the first abandoned Orthodox for Roman Catholicism; the second (___) fell to ___ ___, signifying passing of Orthodox leadership to Russia

Russian undertaking of ___ ___ reflected its "Russification" & growing role as an element of Russian national identity, as well as a reminder of ___ legacy

Mongols challenged notions of "barbarian" & "civilized ": capable of ___ ___, but rule also creates an era of peaceful cross-cultureal acceptance (___ ___) by uniting the ___ ___ under one government

Mongols follow pattern of other nomads: ___; little ___ culture; adaptation to ___; rugged, hardened lifestyle & capable ___; ___/___ organization; heightened ___ & ___ relationships; leadership by ___ & ___

born Temujin; violently avenged family; military strength led to alliances & ascent to supreme ruler of Central Asia

___ culture & ___ integrated East Asia, ___ did Europe, & ___ connected most lands in between; ___ ___ brought all these regions into one interacting network

Mongols didn’t ___/___ much but promoted commerce, mostly to ___ it & extract wealth from the other civilizations

The mongols fostered a relatively secure environment for merchants journeying across Central Asia; brough ends of Eurasia closer & new phase in history of long-distrance travel

European merchants returned home w/ stories & information about ___ ___ & prosperous ___ ___ that had long existed but only just come into ___ ___

Mongols didn’t conquer EU bc of…

Eu spared, but still feared Mongols’ return—pope & eu rulers sent delegations to mongol capital, hoping in vain to…

most important outcome of eu/mongol diplomacy was ___ __ ___ ___ brought back from missions

il-khanate of persia sought alliance w/ slamic conversions to take jerusalem & crush islamic fores, but failed b/c of persian Mongols' ___ ___

close relationship between persia & china: exchanged ___ & ___ ___, shared ___, ___

with economica & political relations came an exchange of ___ & ___; mongols forcibly ___ skilled workers and educated people; ___ ___ & support of ___ attracted missionaries & traders

the capital ___ was a cosmopolitan city w/ places of worship for buddhists, daoists, muslims, and Christians; chinggis khan & other rulers married christian women; relatively open outlook facilitated exchange & blending of ___ ___

mongol authorities encouraged exchange of ___ & ___; chinese tech flowed west; cultures still shaped ___ of foreign ideas/practices

___ gained the most as they were the least technologically developed; benefit of new ___, ___ & ___ from wider world w/o suffering from brutal ___ ___ was arguably the basis for the region’s rise to global prominence

the mongols were an effective military because of mobility & strategy; mostly ___ on ___ w/ bows & arrows; ability to retreat/fake retreat; scouts & spies; highly structured, ___ ___ brigades

Mongols were astute & tolerant leaders but not day-to-day ___; stimulated trade, cultural exchange, artistic creativity; administration carried out by ___ & ___ ___

Chinggis Khan’s death led to ___ of empire between sons; succeeded by ___

empire was split into 4 khanates after chinggis khan’s death: golden horde (___), ilkhan (___), djagatai (___ ___), yuan/empire of khubilai khan (___)

ended CSE; made chinese more inward-looking

over-taxation devasted farms; mongols converted; power vacuum

tribute; russian leadership in moscow; peasants suffer

Mongol networks not only brought benefits in communication/trade but also the ___

the black death likely originated in ___; spread across Mongol Empire’s ___ ___ in early 1300s to ME & WEU

the black death reached east africa by the 1400s, likely through chinese ___ ___

people who caught the plague died in days; high death toll in both ___ civilizations and the ___

the plague came in an intense first wave and was followed by periodic waves over the next few centuries; ___ and ___-___ ___ were much less affected

___ provided a means to understand/cope with the plague; people sought mercy or atonement for their sins; places where faiths coexisted saw several faiths acting together

some turned away from faith during the plague, living to satisfy their ___/___

labor shortages provoked conflict between scarce workers demanding ___ ___ & ___ and employers ___ ___

the labor shortages in europe due to the plague led to ___ ___ & undermined ___; may have also fostered greater interest in tech. ___ & created more opportunities for ___ at the time

the plague was born of the ___ ___ and helped destroy it in the 1300s-1400s: population & trade ___, ME in disarray by 1350s

the mongols lost control of china, persia, and russia within a century; the ___ ___ trade route was largely closed

disruption of mongol ___ ___ & desire to avoid ___ ___ led the europeans to reach asia by sea; naval tech gave military advantages, and they took on the mongol role in some ways by the 1500s

EU & Mongol similarities: peoples on ___ of est. civ; less ___ ___ than China, India, ME but still ___ ___ their wealth; brought devastating ___/pop decline

europe brought much more ___ & their own ___ to areas they conquered than the mongols did; christianity, language western science & tech, settler societies

yuan “foreign-ness” & policies alienated the ___-___, yet ___ & ___ boom continued; position of peasants ___

the yuan’s decline resulted from the usual circumstances: ___ on luxury goods, ___ south; ___ of rulers & rules; greed/taxes

___ khanate (led by hulegu) set sights on middle eastern wealth; destroyed the ___ & ___ (1258), but the mamluks of egypt & infighting defeated the mongols by 1260

the mongols in the middle east were succeeded by the ___ and the ___

mongol peace & increased trade

a complex figure, ruthless conqueror, last great nomadic challenge; product of mongolian mindset: death was always an option

impacts of the bubonic plague in europe

___ people were blamed for the plague; many were merchants and they lived in separate communities so they weren’t impacted as much