adhesion = water attracts to xylem walls
cohesion = water attracts water
cohesion-adhesion
xylem closer to stem centre
phloem closer to outside
vascular cambium separates xylem and phloem
herbaceous stem
DICOT ONLY
grow thicker over time
makes new xylem and phloem each year
sapwood (young xylem) conducts minerals and water
old xylem = hardens into heartwood
bark protects woody stems
tree rings determine climate and tree age
woody stem
structure performing specific functions in the cell
organelles
contains and protects genetic material from cell
double membraned for more selective permeability
nucleus
receives, modifies, packages and transport proteins made by ER
golgi apparatus
makes spindle fibres
helps separate and reorganize genetic material during mitosis
centrioles
filled with enzymes and bounded by membrane
enables digestion
considered recycling centre of cell
lysosomes
found on ER surface
protein synthesis
floats in cytoplasm
ribosomes
transports materials throughout cells
vesicles
store water and starch
surrounded by tonoplast (membrane)
vacuoles
provides movement to certain cells
made of fine protein fibres
cilia = shorter, flagella = longer
cilia + flagella
gives cell energy from food molecules like glucose
energy turns into ATP
site of cellular respiration
co2 from energy gets eliminated for cell
mitochondria
supportive network of fine protein fibres
anchors organelles in place
microtubules + microfilaments
cytoskeleton
ONLY IN PLANTS! and certain protists
contain chlorophyll
makes carbs/sugars via photosynthesis
chloroplasts
interior structure/lining of a tube
ex: intestines have lumen
lumen
large
animal + plant cells
membrane bound organelles
reproduce by mitosis/meiosis
double-stranded chromosomes in nucleus
eukaryotic cells
smaller
bacteria cells
circular chromosomes
no membrane bound organelles
reproduce via binary fission
prokaryotic cells
smooth:
no ribosomes
makes lipids (fats)
rough:
protein synthesis
has ribosomes
endoplasmic reticulum
process of traits passing from parents to offspring
chromosomes carry genes
important for cell reproduction/division
heredity
specific location of gene on chromosome
locus
order of genetic info coding specific trait
gene
made of nucleotides (subunits)
pentose sugars (5 carbon sugars)
nitrogen base
phosphate base (PO4)
structure of nucleic acids
deoxyribonucleic acid
found in nucleus
main components of genes
sugars in nucleotides = deoxyribose sugars
dna
found in nucleus
instructs protein making
nucleotides sugars = ribose sugars
rna
purines
large
double ringed
adenine + guanine
pyrimidines
small
single ring
thymine + cytosine
two types of dna nitrogen bases
adenine + thymine, guanine + cytosine
how do the dna nitrogen bases pair?
uracil + adenine, guanine + cytosine
rna nitrogen base pairings
rna = single helix
dna = double helix
order of bases = acid individuality
dna and rna helix
new offspring made from single parent
made from single parent cell division (no sex cells)
clones, invariable generations
asexual reproduction
offspring from fusion of 2 sex cells
offspring not identical to parents
variable generations
sexual reproduction
study of heredity and variation in genes
genetics
diploid = 2 sets of chromosomes (2n)
haploid = half the number of chromosomes
polypoid = 3+ sets
diploid, haploid, polypoid
variation of life in one area, divides into genetic, species and ecosystem
biodiversity
sum of all different genes in species
small differences = individual uniqueness
allows better adaption to change
genetic diversity
more vulnerable to disease/illness, climate changes or prey/predator changes
what happens with low genetic diversity?
variety of species in one area
more variety = healthier ecosystems
more species = more complexity
species diversity
variety of habitats + organisms and their connections
diverse ecosystems range in size/complexity
ecosystem diversity
when organisms live in/on other organisms
walking ecosystems
grouping similar organisms together for specific reasons
classification in biodiversity
archea, bacteria, animalia, protists, plantae, fungi
6 kingdoms
must be similar in structure
must breed under natural conditions
must be fertile
species requirements
consumes living/dead organisms for energy
unable to make their own food
heterotroph
makes their own food using the sun
autotroph
main classification groups in hierarchy format going more and more specific
taxon
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
taxon groups in order
archaea = only archaebacteria
eukarya = animals, plants, protists, fungi
bacteria = only eubacteria
domains
one of 2 identical chromosome strands
attached to each other by centromere
chromatid
found in eukaryotic cell nucleus
carries genes
chromosome
thread like structures
made of dna and proteins
found in nucleus of eukaryotic cells
forms chromosomes
chromatin
g1: cell growth and preparing for duplication
s (synthesis): genetic info gets duplicated
g2: final prep for cell division
name and describe stages of interphase (mitosis)
“regular” cell division
occurs in somatic cells
when tissues must replace themselves
parent cells divide and make 2 clone daughter cells
what’s mitosis
cells grows too big - surface area doesnt match volume
too much volume = nucleus loses activity control and transport becomes too difficult
allows organism growth
maintains healthy cells
why does mitosis occur
PMAT - prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase
prophase
nuclear membrane dissolves
centrioles move to poles + make mitotic spindle (microtubules)
chromosomes condense and join at centromere
metaphase
chromosomes line up along metaphase plate (cell equator)
chromosomes condense and thicken
anaphase
chromatid separate into single strands
spindle fibres shorten + pull chromosomes to opposite poles
telophase
chromosomes decondense
spindles break down
nuclear membrane forms
animal cells = begin cleavage furrow (indenting cytoplasm)
plant cells = form cell plate to divide cytoplasm
cytokinesis = daughter cells form, cytoplasm divides
name and describe the stages of mitosis
same genes
chromosome from male and female parent
may be different variations
arranged in same order in the dna chromosomes
homologous pairs
cell division that makes gametes (sex cells)
reduces number of chromosomes to half (haploid)
only occurs in eukaryotes who can sexually reproduce
only occurs in at least diploid organisms
have TWO divisions
1 parent cell = 4 gamete cells
each gamete holds different genetic info (not identical)
whats meiosis
interphase before meiosis
dna replicates
two identical copies of chromosome within homologous pair is made, attaches at centromere
copy called sister chromatid
what’s premeiotic interphase
prophase 1
homologous chromosomes pair together (synapsis)
chromatids cross over to exchange genetic info at random points (chiasmata)
pair becomes a tetrad (4 sister chromatids) held together via kinetochore
centrioles move to opposite poles and spindle fibres appear
metaphase 1
spindle fibres attach to kinetochore of tetrads
tetrads line up at metaphase plate
independent assortment happens
chromosome pairs separate randomly
anaphase 1
tetrad pulls apart, each chromosome moves towards opposite pole
chromosome pulls apart at kinetochore
sister chromatids are intact still
telophase 1
chromosome reach poles
nuclear membrane reforms
spindle fibres dissolve
cytokinesis
cytoplasm + organelles divide
daughter cells = haploid
one chromosome from each og homologous pair
sister chromatid still exist
name and describe stages of meiosis 1
homologous chromosomes pair together
whats synapsis
the random points when chromatids cross over for exchanging genetic info
what’s chiasmata
no interphase/dna replication
no crossing over
chromosomes in daughter cells from meiosis 1 are formed as sister chromatids
prophase 2
chromosome condense
spindle fibres appear
centrioles move to opposite ends
metaphase 2
centromeres divide
sets of chromatids move to equator
anaphase 2
chromatids move to opposite poles
telophase 2
chromosomes unwind, nuclear membrane forms
makes 4 haploid cells (sperm or ova) after cytokinesis
all genetically variable
meiosis 2
diploid spermatogonia → primary spermatocytes → 4 spermatids
sperm formation (spermatogenesis)
diploid oogonia → primary oocytes → 1 egg + 3 polar bodies
polar bodies all die
egg formation
mistakes during meiosis
trisomy
fertilized cell has extra chromosome copy
3 chromosomes instead of 2
monosomy
missing chromosome
1 chromosome instead of 2
nondisjunction
chromosome fragment fails to reattach properly
loss of chromosome segment
usually deadly/serious disorder
deletion
segment reattaches to complete homologue
duplication
segment reattaches to correct homologue in reverse order
inversion
segment attaches to nonhomologous chromosome
translocation
cells for testing collected from amniotic fluid
occurs when fetus is larger
amniocentesis
obtaining cells for testing via villi lining in uterus
chorionic villus sampling
organism can only pass one of it’s two genes
inherited traits determined by two alleles of a gene
each offspring contains one allele from each parent
law of segregation
genes found on separate chromosomes are inherited independently of each other
law of independent assortment
dominant alleles will always mask recessive alleles
law of dominance
homozygous = two of same allele (both dom or both rec)
heterozygous = two different alleles (one dom + one rec)
homozygous vs heterozygous
physical/psychological traits of organism
phenotype
genetic makeup/combination of alleles for given trait
genotype
different alleles expressed to produce an intermediate phenotypes
ex: red x white flower = pink flower
incomplete dominance
two expressed at the same time
ex: red x white cow = red, white and roan (red and white hair)
codominance
two identically paired x chromosomes (XX)
female sex chromosomes
one x and one y (XY)
male sex chromosomes
evolutionary relationships between species
phylogeny
diagram showing evolutionary relationships between organisms
tips = species
nodes = common ancestor
phylogenic tree
taxonomic group including a single common ancestor + all it’s descendants
clade
dna profile of species in barcode format
only 6000 species profiled currently
iBOL method