AP Bio Unit 1-4 Midterm

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulfur

Carbs and Lipids are CHO
Sulfur is only in proteins
Nucleic acids have Nitrogen and Phosphate

H20; Because Oxygen wants electrons

Causes ice to float on top of the water; makes it a solvent

Anything that has a charge - other ions; polar molecules, not nonpolar molecules

Water can dissolve lots of things

Anything that has a charge can get dissolved

Solutions have pH values less than 7, indicating higher H+ concentration. Basic solutions have pH values greater than 7, indicating higher OH- concentration.

Covalent is a shared bond - Find it in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, all types of molecules

Ionic takes electrons and makes something more negative and attract the positive - found in chemicals but not in an organic being

Hydrogen bonds - Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular forces of attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom (H⁺) and a partially negative electronegative atom (like O, N, or F) in another molecule.

Vanderwaals forces are found in flies walking up walls supports their weight

Pulling apart a water molecule

Take out the water moleceule cause the other 2 molecules to come close

It can bond with almost anything, very versatile element

Hydroxyl

Carboxyl

Carbonyl

Amino

They have different properties; giving the molecule different properties

Amino acid will always have at least one of these, gives them their acid

In an Amino acid, the amino part

CHO on the sides of a carbon chain

A monomer is a small, basic unit that can join together with other monomers to form a larger molecule called a polymer.

A long chain of carbons surrounded by hydrogens

No double bonds; completely surrounded by hydrogens

Has some missing hydrogens, causing double bonds

Long chain of amino acids; peptide bonds

Protein begins to fold

Then folds into a ball

The arrangement of multiple protein subunits into a functional, three-dimensional structure is known as quaternary structure. It stabilizes the protein and contributes to its overall function. Examples include hemoglobin, which consists of four subunits, and DNA polymerase, which has multiple subunits working together.

Bonds between amino acids

Denaturation is the process of altering the structure of a protein.

Heat, pH changes, or exposure to chemicals can cause it.

Denaturation disrupts the protein's secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

It can lead to loss of protein function.

Mirror image molecules

Prokaryotes don’t have a nucleus, their DNA is in a loop, have their own ribosomes

membrane boud organelles, has a nucleus

Center of a cell where the DNA is held

Structure within the nucleus of a cell responsible for producing ribosomes. Contains DNA, RNA, and proteins. Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis.

A thin barrier surrounding cells, made up of phospholipids and proteins. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell, maintaining cell integrity and regulating cell processes.

A double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus of a cell. It separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm and regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores.

Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, folding, and transport, as well as lipid metabolism. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis, while the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is responsible for lipid synthesis and detoxification.

They are found floating around and on the Endoplasmic reticulum making it “rough”

Organelle responsible for packaging and modifying proteins in eukaryotic cells. Plays a crucial role in intracellular transport and secretion of proteins.

Pipes that connect one part of the system to another

Waste management, break down waste and recycle it

Phospholipid bulayer that protects the cell

Manufacture and export proteins outside the cell

When an organelle can do 2 things at once

Helps to examine a cell, breaks up a cell into it’s organelles in a centrifuge

They all have their own ribosomes and DNA; ties to endosymbiote theory

Where photosynthesis is preformed in a plant cell

Passageways that connect a plant to the rest of it

How animal cells transfer data between cells

SA divided by Volume
V= LxWxH
SA=LxW
or 6*A

Process by which water molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

When the water moves out of the cell; solution has more salt

Water moves in; water solution has less salt

Neutral; reaches equilibrium

Aquaporins are proteins that allow water through the cell membrane

Process that moves molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration. No energy required. Helps maintain equilibrium.

Process that moves molecules against the concentration gradient. Requires energy. Helps maintain concentration differences.

A high-energy molecule used in active transport. It provides the energy needed to move molecules against their concentration gradient, from low to high concentration. This process is crucial for maintaining cell homeostasis and carrying out essential functions such as nutrient uptake and waste removal.

the molecule that fits into the receptor and releases a cell signal

Cell signaling mechanism where a cell secretes signaling molecules that bind to its own receptors

Signals that are recieved when they’re touching

Signaling in nerves; over a short jump

A hormone that goes through the whole body; only things with receptors will take it; hormones

Depends on the cell it hits, can do different things to different cells

1) It can be regulate

2) It can amplify it

The signaling chain and pattern

Chain of ATP donating Phosphates to activate proteins

Things like CAMP; something released through the cell that triggers the rest of the process

Gate that opens and closes when a ligand is recepted

Triggers mitosis in a cell

Division and creates identical copies of a cell; cell reproduction

Formed from Chromatin

Pieces of DNA

Proteins that help package DNA into a compact form called chromatin.

They pull apart the chromosomes to copy the DNA

Prophase- Chromosomes get copied
Metaphase- Cells align together in the middle; nucleus dissolves
Anaphase- Spindle fibers attach to the chromatin
Telaphase- 2 Nuclie

Regulatory proteins that control the progression of the cell cycle.

Abnormal cell growth caused by a disrupted cell cycle.

When cells grow too big they stop; or when they are touching another

1) Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.

2) The entropy of an isolated system always increases.

3) As temperature approaches absolute zero, entropy approaches a minimum value."

Proteins that breakdown things in your body; catalyze chemical reactions

Measure of a system's ability to do work or drive a chemical reaction. Determines spontaneity and equilibrium of a process.

A type of chemical reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed. It has a positive change in free energy and is not spontaneous.

A chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of ATP. It occurs when the products have less energy than the reactants.

Reactions that occur naturally without the need for external energy input. They tend to proceed in a forward direction, releasing energy and increasing entropy. Examples include combustion, dissolution of salts in water, and some chemical reactions.