Ap Psych semester 1

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height)

the eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision

nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

any event or situation that evokes a response

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

the perception that we control our own fate

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

learning by observing others