John Ray
the man who developed a modern definition of the word "species"
Carl Linnaeus
"Father of Taxonomy"; established his classification of living things; famous for animal naming system of binomial nomenclature
Species Name
Genus + epithet(species)
Higher Taxonomic Names
Canidae, Reptilia, Homonidae, etc
Taxonomic Classification Levels
Domain->Kingdom->Phylum->Class->Order->Family->Genus->Species
Taxonomy
How living things are classified
Taxon
Group of any rank, such as a species, family, or class
Taxa
Ideally, monophyletic (all the descendants from a common ancestor)
Phylogeny
Study of evolutionary history and relationships of a species or group of species.
Monophyletic
A taxon that consists of a most recent common ancestor and all its descendants
Paraphyletic
A taxon that consists of a most recent common ancestor and some of its descendants
Polyphyletic
A taxon that consists of unrelated organisms who are from a different recent common ancestor. This group lacks a most recent common ancestor
Synapomorphy
shared derived character
Data used to make phylogenetic trees
-Fossil Records -Morphology -Physiology -Behavior -Embryological development -DNA/RNA sequences
Cladistics
Reconstructs phylogenetic tress by considering various evolutionary pathways
Clade
Group of evolutionary ancestors and descendants of a common ancestor
Sister Clades
Clades that share an immediate common ancestor; two clades that are each other's closest relatives
Cladogram
Diagram showing evolutionary relationships among organisms
phylogenetic tree
diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor; resembles a tree
Homology
traits inherited by two different organisms from a common ancestor
Ancestral Trait
in ancestor of group; may be retained or changed in descendants
Derived Traits
newly evolved features that do not appear in the common ancestors
Homoplasies
features shared between species that were not inherited from a common ancestor
Principle of Parsimony
Preferred explanation of observed data is the simplest explanation
Characteristics used to Classify Organisms
-Life Cycles -Extraembryonic Membranes -Excretory Product -Temperature Regulation -Skull Types
Haploid
One set of chromosomes (n)
Diploid
Two sets of chromosomes (2n)
Gametes
Sex cells (haploid)
Gametophyte
Gamete-producing structure
Meiosis
cell division process; yields haploid gamete or spores
Mitosis
cell division process; yields identical cells
Spore
A tiny cell that is able to grow into a new organism
Sporophyte
The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces spores.
Alternation of Generations
the alternation between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte in a plant's life cycle
Fish & Amphibian Eggs
Eggs laid in water, no special water-filled enclosure (non-amniotes)
Reptile & Bird Eggs
Shelled Egg
Mammal Eggs
Marsupial and placental (eutherian) uterus
Eutherian
Placental mammal
Amniotes
their embryos are protected by extraembryonic membranes
Amnion
Protects embryo in a sac filled with amniotic fluid
Yolk Sac
Contains yolk; sole source of food until hatching
Allantois
Stores metabolic wastes of the embryo
Chorion
lines inner surface of shell & participates in the gas exchange between embryo and outside air
Fish Excretory Product
Ammonia
Mammal, Amphibian, & Shark Excretory Product
Urea
Birds, Insects, & Many Reptiles Excretory Product
Uric Acid
Endotherms
Warm-blooded animals; get heat from metabolic activities within the body
Ectotherms
Cold-blooded animals; get heat from the external environment
Homeotherms
Keep body temperature constant
Heterotherms
Allow body temperature to fluctuate
Synapsids
Mammals, one temporal fenestrae
Sauropsids
anapsids and diapsids
Anapsids
no temporal fenestrae (turtles)
Diapsids
two temporal fenestrae
Three Domain System
Domains Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya.
Eukaryotic Kingdoms
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
Bacteria & Archaea
single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus; prokaryotes
Prokaryote Reproduction
asexual binary fission
Plasmids
Small circular DMA molecules within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently
Animal Body Plans
-number of tissue types in embryos -type of body symmetry -degree of cephalization -presence or absence of fluid-filled cavity -the way early development proceeds
Diploblasts
two germ layers: ectoderms and endoderms. Cnidaria & Ctenophora
Triploblasts
three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Adult echinoderms
Body Cavity
A fluid-containing space between the digestive tract and the body wall.
Coelem
fluid-filled body cavity lined with mesoderm
Aceolomates
organisms without a ceolem. Flatworms
Pseudocoelomate
An animal whose body cavity is not completely lined by mesoderm
Protostomes
mouth develops first, arthropods, mollusks, annelids
Deuterostomes
anus develops first, Chordata phylum, echinoderms
Phylum Chordata
vertebrates
Mycelia fungi
compromised of hyphae, have cell walls mainly of chitin
Fungi
Heterotrophs that acquire nutrients by absorption
Decomposing Fungi
Absorb nutrients from nonliving organisms
Parasite Fungi
Absorb nutrients from living host's cells
Specialized Hyphae
modified for predation
Haustoria
appendage or portion of a parasitic fungus that penetrates host's tissue and draws nutrients from it
Mycorrihaze Fungi
Hyphae of certain fungi and roots of most seed plants that absorbs nutrients
Chytridiomycota: Chytrids
Common in freshwater environments; Have enzymes that digest cellulose so they are important decomposers of plant tissue; can live in the guts of herbivores to help digest their food; have a flagellated stage called a zoospore that produces and holds spores
Zygomycota: Zygote Fungi
Soil dwellers (lakes and wet soils); Comprise the common bread molds and fruit rots; are decomposers, parasites, and mutualists; form zygospores that are resistant to harsh conditions; can form mycorrhizal associations
Glomeromycota: Mycorrhizal fungi
Mycorrhizal fungi; 90% of plants have relationships with these fungi and need them to exist: increase surface area and protecting the roots
Asomycota: Sac Fungi
Sac fungi; found in diverse habitats; 70% of all fungi belong to this group; spores are in sacs called asci; includes yeast, truffles, morels, and penicillin; can become diseases
Basidiomycota: Club Fungi
Typical mushroom; includes shelf/bracket fungi, some molds, and rusts; named for basidia that are club-like cells where spores form; have mycorrhizal associations and lichens; some are mutualistic with insects
Nonvascular Plants
no vascular tissue to conduct water or provide support
Bryophytes
A moss, liverwort, or hornwort
Seedless Plants
Have vascular tissue but do not make seeds
Pteridophytes
Lycophytes, Whisk Ferns, Horsetails, Ferns
Seed Plants
Have vascular tissue and make seeds
Gymnosperms
cycads, ginkos, conifer
Angiosperms
flowering plants
Endosymbiosis
Unicellular organisms engulfed other cells which became organelles: chloroplasts, mitochondria
Ingestive Feeding
eating live or dead organisms or scavenging loose bits of organic debris. Paramecium
Absorptive Feeding
taking nutrients directly from the environment
Paramecium
waves hair-like appendages called cilia to propel itself
Amoeba
uses lobe-like pseudopodia to anchor itself to a solid surface and pull itself
Euglena
Uses a whip-like tail called a flagellum to propel itself
Symplesiomorphy
Ancestral character trait shared by two or more lineages in a clade
plesiamorphy
Human hair is a _______
Bacteria
Saprobes that display positive chemotaxis when near a favorable substrate. Spherical and reproduce/replicate quickly.