AP Bio All Units -

Chemical Signals - Send, Receiving, Responding.

1. Secrete ligand

2. Bind to receptor on cell

3. Trigger Response within cell

Signaling Within Cell

Ex. Cancer Cell

Physical connection between cell sending ligand & receiving Ligand.

1. Secrete ligand

2. Bind to SURFACE RECPETOR

3. Trigger Response within cell

1. Secretes ligands

2. Travels Short distance

3. Elicits effect on cells in nearby area

Local Regulators - Travel Short Distances

Ex. Neurotransmitters

Long Distance Traveling - Travel Through the blood stream

Ex. Hormones

Determines how cells respond internally to signal

Ex. Cell Growth, Divison, Release of Hormones

1. Chemical Message ( Ligand )

2. Ligand interacts with Target Cell

3. Hydrophobic / Hydrophilic

4. Hydrophilic -

   1. Binds with receptor

   2. Triggers chemical reactions

5. Hydrophobic -

   1. Slides between phospholipid biller

   2. Bind to an intracellular receptor

   3. Ligand crosses cellular membrane

   4. Changes Gene

Step One:

Bind to Receptor:

1. Cell Membrane - Hydrophilic

2. Cytosol - Hydrophobic

Conformation change ( Change cell shape)

Signaling Cascade

Kinases

Phosphatase

Secondary Messenger

Series of chemical reactions

One Molecule activates multiple molecules

Transfer phosphate groups to other molecules

Remove phosphate group

Produces a second Messager to do the next step

Return the organisms back to homeostasis

Ex. Sweating

Magnifies cell processes -until end result is achieved

Interphase (g1,S,G2), mitosis, Cytokinesis.

Cell grows in order to divide, replicates genetic material. (G1, S, G2)

Cell Grows and prepares for DNA replication

Some centrioles replication

DNA replication occurs

Begins: Each Chromosomes = 1 Chromatid

Ends: Each chromosomes = 2 Chromatids via centromere

Double DNA than G1

Cell continues to grow

Prepares material for mitosis

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

nuclear membranes dissolves, and chromosomes condense and become visible

Spindle Fibers begin to form

Step Two -

Spindle fibers fully attached to centromeres of each chromosome

Alighted along the equator of the cell in a single column ( metaphosphate plate )

EACH Chromosome splits at the centromeres

Each are pulled to opposites ends of the cell

Each chromatid = one centromere

End: 2× # of chromosomes at beginning

two new nuclear membranes form

Each has same # of chromsomes and same genetic information as parent

Division of the Cytoplams

Animal Cells -

• Cleavage furrow is formed - Partitions cytosol and contents in two new cells

Plant Cells

• Cell Plates is build in dividing cells, —> new cell wall material for each daughter cell

Regulation of cell cycle

Kinase adds phosphate groups to other molecules

INACTIVE UNTIL BOUND TO CYCLIN

Cells not part of sexual reproduction

Cells needs to attached to surface in order to divide

Propel cell divison at a specific rate

Code to find mutations

Programed cell death

Positive & Negative Side

SHARED Election bonds

Atoms with unequal electronegativity charges share electrons

Different charges in a water molecule are attracted to each others

Ex. Negative Oxegen - Positive Hydrogen

Water has a high surface tension

More energy to sperate hydrogen Bonds

More Energy = More Heat / Temperature

Water can absorb and release large amounts of energy

Solid State - More space between bonds = Lower density

Water portially pos & partially neg. = readily dissolve ionic compounds

<7

>7

Higher H+ = Lower pH

Lower H+ = Higher pH

Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxogen, Phosphurs, Sulfer

4 Valence Electrons

Bonds: Single, Double, Tripple

Strucutres: Linear, Branched, Ring

Valence Electrons: 6

Molecultes: S=Protines

Valence Electrons: 5

3 Bonds

Locations:

• Nitrogen: Nucleic Acids / Protines

• Phosuorus: Nucleic Acids/ Lipids

Valence Electrongs: 1

Single Bond

Removes water

Adds water

storing energy

• Starch & Glycogen ( Chains)

Structural:

• Cellulose ( Linear)

Nonpolar macromolecules

Functions:

• Energy storgage

• Cell membranes

• Insulation

C-H single bonds

Solid at room temp

C=C double bonds

Liquid at room temperature

Glycerol, 2 fatty acids(nonpolar), & phosphate group (polar)

Both hydrophobic ( scared of water ) & hydrophilic ( likes water) regions

Flat, nonpolar molecules

Polymer of nucleotides - carry genetic information

Polymers of Amino Acids

Amino group, Carboxylic acid group, hydrogen atom, side chain ( R-group)

Enzyme catalysis, maintaining cell structures, cell signaling, cell recognition

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

Amino Acids joined by peptides bonds

Amino (NH2) terminus + Carboxyl (COOH) terminus

Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent amino acids

Drives formation of structure

Alpha helixes and beta - pleated sheets formed

Three dimensional follded shape of proteins, determined by hydrophobic / hydrophilic interactions of R-groups

Multiple polypeptide chains, joined together form complete protine & function as a unit.

Polymers of Nucleotides ( RNA / DNA )

Made of: 5-Carbon sugar ( Deoxyribose / Ribose)

Nitrogenous Base ( A,T,G,U,C)

Phosphate group

Phosphate + 5’ carbon

3’ + hydroxyl group

Trasncribes & regulates the expression of genetic information

Holds genetic information

Thymine, Uracil, Cytosine

Adenine & Guanine

Membrane bound Organelles - Animals mainly

DNA - Linear chromosomes ( Membrane bound Nucleus )

Circular Chromosomes contain DNA ( Nucleus ) - Bacteria

Genetic material outside Chromones - Prokaryotes

Cells Type: Both

Protein Synthesis - Assbelme Amino acids into peptide chains based on mRNA sequence.

Made of: Protines + rRNA ( Risbomal RNA)

Locations:

• Free: Cyctosol

• Bound: Rough ER

Protein Synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins using instructions encoded in DNA. It involves two main stages: transcription, where DNA is copied into mRNA, and translation, where mRNA is used to assemble amino acids into a protein.

Synthesis of Lipids

Detoxify harmful substances

Ribosomes are bound

Participate in Protein Synthesis

stacks of cisternae

Controls modification and packaging of proteins for transport through the cell

Flattened membrane sacs in Golgi Complex

The interior portion of Cisternae

Contains enzymes for Golgi functioning

Membrane - bound sacs - Contain hydrolytic enzymes

Functions:

• Digest macromolecules

• Breakdown worn out cells parts

• Apoptosis

• Destroy bacteria

Function: Food & Water storage, water regulation, waster storage

Plants - Provide them with turgor pressure

Energy

Inner center of mitochondria - Enzyme containing fluid

Krebs cycle occurs here

Contains mtDNA & ribosomes

Location: Plants + Algae

Function - Photosynthesis

Contain cpDNA

Membraneuous sacks - Light Dependent reactions

Stacked structures of Thylakoid

Liquid surrounding grana - Light indenepend reactions

Helps microtubules assemble into spindle fibers needed in cell division

Location: Plants

Excess glucose is stored as starch molecules

Helps oxidize molecules

non membrane bound, region in nucleus where ribosomes are assembled

Fibers help give cells their shape and use to move items into the cells

Endosymbiosis HypothesisThe endosymbiosis hypothesis proposes that eukaryotic cells evolved from symbiotic relationships between different prokaryotic cells. This theory suggests that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living prokaryotes that were engulfed by a larger host cell.