AP Biology - unit 1

Plants use solar energy to transfer carbon dioxide into the molecules of life such as carbon.

It gives carbon the ability to form large complex and varied molecules.

Carbon containing compounds.

It is the study of carbon containing compounds.

They are compounds containing the elements hydrogen and carbon.

It is the belief of a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws.

The belief that all natural phenomena are governed by physical and chemical laws including the process of life.

He mimicked the conditions of early earth and ended up with Abiotically synthesized organic compounds such as ammonia and methane.

Carbon dioxide is not an organic compound because it is very simple and does not contain hydrogen.

carbon skeletons can be in branches closed rings or chain. Carbon atoms can also form single triple or double bonds with each other.

They are hydrophobic because of their nonpolar linkages, they can undergo reactions and release large amounts of energy.

They are compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same element with different structures and therefore different functions.

Structural isomers, geometrical isomers, enantiomers.

They differ in covalent arrangement (carbon skeleton) and double bond locations.

They differed in the arrangement about a double bond. ( Cis when H’s are next to each other and trans when H’s are opposite each other) (only with double bonds)

They are emitted images of each other due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon.

One, because only that form can find to specific molecules in an organism.

By changing the molecules shaped or by being involved in chemical reactions.

They are chemical groups that are directly involved in chemical reactions.

-OH or HO- (Forms alcohols) (hydrophilic and increases compound’s solubility in water)

CO (forms ketones and aldehydes which for ketoses and aldoses sugars) (hydrophilic and increases compound’s solubility in water)

-COOH (forms carboxylic acids)(hydroxyl + carbonyl) (hydrophilic and increases compound’s solubility in water) (acts as an acid)

-NH2 (forms amines) (acts as a base) (hydrophilic and increases compound’s solubility in water)

-SH or HS- (forms thiols) (hydrophilic and increases compound’s solubility in water)

-OPO3^2- (forms organic phosphates) (hydrophilic and increases compound’s solubility in water)

-CH3 (forms methylated compounds) (does not react but acts as a tag on molecules)

Adenosine attached to a string of 3 phosphate groups. It can react with water and split of into ADP and a phosphate group and release energy for cells.

Four: lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids.

because they are huge on the molecular scale.

A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar blocks linked by covalent bonds.

They are the building blocks of polymers.

They are specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions.

Dehydration synthesis/condensation reaction.

It is a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded with the loss of one water molecule in which one monomer provides a hydroxyl group and the other monomer provides a hydrogen.

Hydrolysis reaction.

It is a reaction in which the bonds between monomers is broken down by the addition of water in which a hydrogen attaches to one monomer and a hydroxyl group attaches to the other monomer.

The basis is that small molecules common to all organisms are ordered into unique macromolecules.

They are sugars are polymers of sugar and act As fuel and building material.

They are simple sugars and monomers of complex carbohydrates.

They are double sugars consisting of two covalently bonded monosaccharides.

They are polymers of a few hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides.

CH2O

One carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups.

They range from 3 to 7 carbons. The most common ones are trioses, pentoses, and hexoses. They are arranged in rings.

The location of carbonyl group, the spatial arrangement of their parts around asymmetric carbon‘s, and of the length of the carbon chains.

It’s a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis.

The locations of glycostatic linkages and sugar monomers.

Starch and glycogen.

It is a polymer of glucose used to store sugars in plants in plastids. Sugar can be withdrawn by hydrolysis.

Amylose is unbranched and is the simplest starch. Amylopectin is branched and more complex.

An extensively branched polymer of glucose that stores is glucose in animals in liver and muscle cells. It cannot sustain animals for long.

Cellulose and chitin.

It is a polymer of glucose that makes up plant cell walls. It is the most abundant organic compound on earth.

Sarge is made up of alpha glucose monomers (OH is under carbon 1). Cellulose is made up of beta glucose monomers (OH is above carbon 1).

It is always straight and not very branched. Some hydroxyl groups are free to hydrogen bond with hydroxyl groups of other cellulose molecules to form microfibrils.

Although cellulose does not nutrient for humans, it’s a bridge the walls of digestive tract and stimulates mucus for smooth passage of food.

Starch monomers are in the same orientation while each cellulose monomer is upside down its neighbors.

A polymer of glucose monomers that is used in exoskeletons of arthropods and cell walls of fungi.

Pure chitin is levity and flexible, in exoskeletons it is encrusted with calcium carbonate

Glucose monomers in chitin have nitrogen containing appendages.

Lipids do not form true polymers and they are not large enough to be considered macromolecules.

Because of their hydrophobic properties which come from their many hydrocarbon regions.

Fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

A fat molecule is composed of three fatty acids (can be the same or different kinds) that are joint to glycerol by an ester linkage.

Glycerol is an alcohol whose each of its three carbos bears a hydroxyl group.

It is a long carbon chain (usually 16 or 18)with carboxyl group at one end which gives it the name fatty acid.

It is a bond between a hydroxyl and carboxyl group

Triacylglycerol and triglyceride.

Fatty acids with no double bonds between carbons and therefore with as many hydrogen atoms as possible.

Fatty acids with at least one double bond between carbons (mostly cis double bond which causes a up curve in the hydrocarbon)

Animal fats - solid at room temperature (their flexibility due to lack of double bonds allows them to tightly pack) - contribute to cardiovascular diseases (by raising cholesterol levels)

Plant fats - fish fat - nut fat - liquid at room temperature( kinks from cis bonds prevents packing tightly) - referred to as oils.

Hydrogenating oils is synthetically converting them into saturated fats by adding hydrogen. It’s produces saturated fats and unsaturated fats with trans double bonds (which contribute to cardiovascular diseases more than saturated fats).

Energy storage (in adipose cells) (more than twice as much as polysaccharides) - cushioning of vital organs - insulating the body.

A glycerol with two fatty acids and a negatively charged phosphate group which can be linked to other small molecules.

They self assemble into a bilayer with hydrophobic portions (tails: fatty acids)on the inside and hydrophilic portion (heads: glycerol and phosphate group) on outside.

From the differences in the fatty acids and in the groups attached to the phosphate group.

It’s carbon skeleton consists of four fused rings.

It is the antecedent of other steroids, it is synthesized in the liver of vertebrates.

An enzymatic proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.

Proteins

Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids.

It is one or more polypeptides.

Enzymatic - defensive - storage – transport - hormonal – receptor - contractile and motor - structural.

A polypeptide monomer that consists of an asymmetric carbon (alpha carbon) attached to a hydrogen, carboxyl group(ionized in cell pH), amino group, and a side chain R group.

It is the covalent bond that holds the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another amino acid in a polypeptide.

Carboxyl group, amino group, carbon, hydrogen. (Fixed)

The kind and sequence of sides chains because they greatly outnumbered the terminal groups.

A carboxyl end (C-terminus) and an amino end (N-terminus)

A linked sequence of amino acids that is determined by inherited genetic information. It dictates secondary and tertiary structures.

The coils and folds of amino acid sequence as a result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone.

Alpha helix: A coil held together by hydrogen bonds between every fourth amino acid. Beta pleated sheet: beta strands of the polypeptide chain lying parallel to each other and connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the backbones.

The overall 3D shape of the polypeptide resulting from interactions of sides chains or R groups of amino acids.

It is an interaction caused by the exclusion of nonpolar substances by water molecules, where non polar substances are held together by the Vanderwall forces and hydrogen bonds hold the polar parts together.

It happens when the sulfur from one cysteine bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine and rivers the protein together.

It is the proteins structure that results from more than one polypeptide chain bonded together such as a hemoglobin.

The amino acid sequence, the physical and chemical conditions of the proteins environment.

It is when a protein unravels and loses its native shape due to environmental changes. When altering agents are removed a protein chain gets back to its shape.

Protein molecules that assist to the folding of other proteins by protecting them from bad influences in the cytoplasmic environment.

The amino acid sequence is programmed by a gene which is made of DNA.