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critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
structuralism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes.
functionalism
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
humanistic psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes.
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
personality psychology
the study of individuals' characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
human factors psychology
a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
sensory receptors
sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd).
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height).
cornea
the eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
accommodation
in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
cones
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.
audition
the sense or act of hearing.
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.
cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh]
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness.
conduction hearing loss
a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.)
gate-control theory
"the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological ""gate"" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The ""gate"" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain."
olfaction
the sense of smell.
kinesthesia [kin-ehs-THEE-zhuh]
our movement sense—our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body arts.
vestibular sense
our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
embodied cognition
the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.
gestalt
An organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
binocular cue
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
monocular cue
a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.