The Rise of Cultural Nationalism

Educational and Literacy Nationalism

By 1800, Thomas Jefferson and his Republican party were focused on maintaining rural farming America over the urban industry. They championed the idea of enlightened and virtuous citizenry, which led Republicans to believe in the creation of a nationwide system of public schools where all male citizens would receive education.

• Judith Sargent Murray: a women who published essays defending the a woman’s right to education, and the inclusion of women in modern society in general

Medicine and Science

Before the nineteenth century, medicine and science were often not associated. However, physicians at universities and in many academic settings started pushing for a more scientific approach to medicine. Their methods varied, some were crude like bloodletting, while others like inoculation were advanced and set medical precedent.

Cultural Aspirations of the New Nation

Literary and artistic fields were gaining advancements as well during this time period. Great authors and artists were able to create and spread their work in new ways thanks to rapid advancement.

• Noah Webster: a Connecticut schoolmaster, lawyer, and author of widely used spellers and dictionaries

• Washington Irving: a popular writer who wrote on stories of society in the New World. His notable folktale characters include Ichabod Crane and Rip Van Winkle

Religion and Revivalism

Following the Enlightenment which had introduced more secular practices and ideas, many sermons and priests championed revivalism of devout Christian religious practices and lifestyles. This sparked the Second Great Awakening in America.

• Deism: a term for those who accepted the existence of God, but believed he didn’t control anything after the creation of the universe

• Second Great Awakening: a revivalism of Christian evangelicalism in 1801 where Protestant denominations gained followers and popular support extremely quickly

• Cane Ridge: a site in Kentucky where sermons and religious camps were held in the summer of 1801 and attracted thousands of people to hear about the preaching of righteous religious endeavors

• Handsome Lake: a Seneca whose seemingly miraculous “rebirth” after years of alcoholism helped give him a special stature within his tribe, advocating for a revival of Indian ways and rejection of white society

Stirrings of Industrialism

Technology of America

The European Industrial Revolution was in full swing during this time period. While America couldn’t quite compare to that scale of manufacturing and standardization, rapid urban expansion of mechanical invention occurred, which revolutionized the economy and ways of life in the US for decades to come.

• Industrial Revolution: a momentous economic transformation in Great Britain where power-driven machines were permitting manufacturing to become more rapid and extensive, leaving profound social and economic consequences

• Eli Whitney: an American inventor who developed a machine called the cotton gin

• Capitalists: owners of material or financial assets useful for the accumulation of additional wealth

America in the World: The Global Industrial Revolution

Countries such as France, England, and Germany were seeing unprecedented standard production in newly built factories and items. This spread to other parts of the world and eventually took hold of the United States.

Transportation Innovations

Industrialization also impacted transportation. Previously used wind-powered ships made way for the steamboat and more advanced water power machines. Railroads and trains were increasingly built and popularized. Turnpikes and paved/gravel roads became a standard network of transportation on a national scale.

• Robert Fulton: inventor who conceptualized and created the steamboat, first sailing the Clermont up the Hudson river in the summer of 1807

Patterns of Popular Culture: Horse Racing

Horse racing evolved from the start of the colonies in America as a popular sport, continuing to be a favorite past time well into the ninetieth and twentieth centuries. However, its impact and the people it attracted changed from elitists to lower-class citizens throughout history.

Country and City

America still remained rurally powered by farmers and agrarian systems despite the technological advancements. However, cities such as Philadelphia and New York still continued to grow in population, size, and opportunities.

Jefferson the President

The Federal City and The “People’s President”

Jefferson was a complicated and often surprising person. He often stressed the ideals of being a common, everyday man and dressed and presented in such a manner, to the distaste of some authoritative figures who thought the President shouldn’t act in such a manner. His attempts to start a bustling capital city in Washington, D.C. were largely unsuccessful at the time.

• Washington, D.C.: the capital city of the United States, founded in 1790 and designed by French architect Pierre L’Enfant

Dollars and Ships

Jefferson, leading the Republican party, attempted to lower the excessive national debt gained during the previous President’s term. He ended up scaling down the US’s armed forces as well, but didn’t completely abandon military strength as he expanded the navy. It was still difficult for him to negotiate and handle encounters with the Barbary pirates across the ocean.

Conflict with the Courts

With the legislative and executive branches of government being mainly dominated by Republicans, Jefferson attempted to expand their influence to the judicial branch. This was somewhat unsuccessful after many of the justices presided over cases in favor of Federalists policies, falling in line with the Presidents who appointed them before Jefferson’s term.

• Marbury v. Madison: the 1803 case reviewed by the Supreme Court where they nullified acts of Congress, exerting their power of judicial review and setting a precedent of the amount of power the judicial branch could carry in the national government

• John Marshall: the chief justice of the United States from 1801-1835, appointed by John Adams and presided over many of the US’s first supreme court cases

Doubling the National Domain

Jefferson and Napoleon

Napoleon in control of France during this time left struggles with their relationship with the US. Territory west of the Mississippi that had been gained in the Seven Years’ War by France was increasingly unregulated, creating conflicts between French, Americans, and Native Americans. Napoleon initially planned to start a French empire in this territory, but with the turn of events for his conquests in Europe plans started to change.

The Louisiana Purchase

Napoleon proposed the entire Louisiana territory (a large chunk of the middle US today) for purchase to Jefferson, or his delegates in correspondence with Napoleon. There were several factors leading into his decision to accept the purchase, such as the price, Native Americans affected, and if he even had the power from the Constitution to undertake such a large action so quickly without notice or consent from the people.

Exploring the West

After Jefferson’s purchase of the Louisiana territory, he needed to survey and get an idea of the entirety of it. He sent men on an expedition of the land all the way to the coast.

• Lewis and Clark: two explorers tasked with surveying the land and accounting their experiences between the Mississippi river and Pacific Ocean shortly after the purchase of the Louisiana territory

Consider the Source: Jefferson’s Letter to Meriwether Lewis (1803)

Jefferson gives detailed and specific instructions to the men he sends out on this expedition and what information he wants to gain from it. He also displays his inherit interest and knowledge for science, nature, weather, biology, and math through his descriptions of what to catalog and recount in Lewis and Clark’s reports.

The Burr Conspiracy

Federalist Aaron Burr was part of few who expressed incredible outrage at Jefferson’s actions surrounding the new expansion of the United States. Many rumors and conspiracies surrounded him plotting treason to lead the secession of the New England states to create a separate country in the North. Eventually, he fled New York after killing Hamilton in a duel and was condemned by Jefferson.

• secession: the split of certain states or a section in a country based on differing views or ideologies

Expansion and War

Conflict on the Seas

British ships started seizing American vessels after the French blockade instituted by Napoleon. America had a hard time remaining neutral as both foreign countries took advantage of the new nation and its relations.

• impressment: the act of seizing sailors or soldiers and forcing military duty and work (often done by British)

Impressment

The British forced impressment, often taking both British and American citizens into their navy. The working conditions were horrible, and some even died or were killed after being impressed. The Chesapeake-Leonard conflict between ships outraged American citizens and prompted Jefferson to end the British’s seizure and impressment of American sailors and soldiers.

“Peaceable Coercion”

Jefferson swiftly passed the Embargo Act in 1807, prohibiting all foreign trade as tensions with both France and England reached a critical point. Many Americans were unhappy with this, as it damaged trade and economy especially for lower class citizens and merchants. Tensions with the British due to this embargo would eventually lead to greater conflict.

• embargo: a prohibition of all trade with a specific foreign country or power

The “Indian Problem” and the British

American settlers had not been kind or favorable with Native Americans, especially as the country started to expand westward into predominantly Native American territory. Many fights and conflicts arose in this seemingly “lawless” western territory, and many tribes started allying with the British against the US, as they were treated better by the redcoats.

• William Henry Harrison: born in Virginia, veteran of combat against Native Americans, a congressional delegate from the Northwest Territory in 1799, and ninth president of the US

Tecumesh and The Prophet

Native American tribes with religious leaders such as Tecumesh and the Prophet called them to action to fight against white settler expansion and upheaval of their ancestral lands. American officials further escalated matters by burning their camps, engaging in conflict, and riling innocent tribespeople.

• Tecumesh: a chief of the Shawnees who worked to unite native peoples against the threat of white expansion; died fighting for Britain in the War of 1812

• the Prophet: a charismatic religious leader in the Shawnee tribe called Tenskwatawa, who recovered from alcoholism and preached for Native American pushback against white settlers

Florida and War Fever

Looking to expand federal territory in Florida, Jefferson and his advisors were encapsulated with territory disputes in many areas of the country. However, war fever was especially rampant at this time and prompted by War Hawks and in Congress, eventually leading to the War of 1812.

• War Hawks: a group of determined young congressmen who earned the name through their encouragement of going to the war with the British and Native Americans

The War of 1812

Battles with the Tribes

American forces invaded Canada through Detroit to gain territory. They planned to attack Native American groups in northern and western borders of the states. While many battles were successful, they also suffered increasing losses and motivation as time went on.

Battles with the British

British territory to the north in Canada left many soldiers fighting with the British over the territorial and political strain. Many battles where victories were gained by either side ended up in general weariness for both sides, and the war started to lose traction after the first year.

The Revolt of New England

Federalists in the north were especially fed up with the seemingly pointless war. Delegates even met in the Hartford Convention to discuss grievances and plans moving forward, in direct opposition to the Republican president at the time, James Madison.

• Hartford Convention: New England state delegates met in Hartford, Connecticut in December to discuss their grievances against the Madison administration, many were Federalists and even hinted at secession but never seriously attempted such a bold move

The Peace Settlement

Eventually, with both sides of the War of 1812 (now in 1814) were tired out and not gaining anything by continuing the conflict. American and British diplomats met and decided on terms and agreements for the end of the war, marking the end of their direct battles for the time period.

Conclusion

Comprehension Questions

1. What questions did the Second Continental Congress debate, and how did it address them?

2. What was the impact of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense on Americans’ view of the war with Britain?

3. What were the ideals of the new state and national governments, and how did those ideals compare with the realities of American society?

4. What was the purpose of the Articles of Confederation?